Human development WCU 26

What is the significance of understanding human development?

It allows us to impact development and address its consequences.

What are the core concepts in human development?

Nature vs nurture, continuity vs discontinuity, universal vs context-specific development.

What does the biopsychosocial framework include?

Biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces.

What is a developmental theory?

An organized set of ideas designed to explain development and predict behavior.

What are the major categories of developmental theories?

Psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, ecological/system, and lifespan/life course theories.

Who proposed the first comprehensive psychosocial theory of personality?

Erik Erikson.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning theory where behavior is influenced by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others, often influenced by the perceived competence of the model.

What does self-efficacy refer to?

Beliefs about one's own abilities and talents.

What are the three approaches in cognitive developmental theory?

Piaget's stages, information-processing theory, and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.

What does ecological theory emphasize?

Human development as inseparable from the environmental context.

What is Bronfenbrenner's theory?

It proposes that the developing person is embedded in a series of complex and interactive systems.

What does competence-environmental press theory suggest?

Development depends on the interaction between a person's competencies and environmental demands.

What are key features of lifespan perspective?

Multidirectional growth and decline, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation.

What is the sensorimotor period in Piaget's theory?

The stage from birth to 2 years where infants explore the environment and develop object permanence.

What is egocentrism in preoperational thinking?

The difficulty in seeing perspectives outside of one's own.

What is centration in cognitive development?

The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while neglecting others.

What is the significance of equilibrium in cognitive development?

It represents a balance between assimilation and accommodation.

What occurs during the formal operational period?

Cognitive development from age 11 onwards, characterized by abstract thinking.

What is the role of adaptation in cognitive development?

It involves refining and adding schemes to understand the world.

What is the process of equilibration?

Reorganizing or replacing inadequate schemes to achieve cognitive balance.

What is the preoperational period in Piaget's theory?

The stage from ages 2 to 7 characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

What is the concrete operational period?

The stage from ages 7 to 11 where children begin to think logically about concrete events.

What is the significance of historical context in lifespan development?

It influences individual timing of life events and their impact on development.

What is the role of compensation in development?

Finding alternate ways to meet goals when faced with limitations.

What does optimization refer to in the context of development?

Minimizing losses and maximizing gains in personal growth.

What is the role of discovery in learning?

Discovery fosters learning by allowing children to interpret experiences with their current cognitive structures.

What does criticism of cognitive development theories often highlight?

Criticism often points out underestimations of young children, overestimations of adolescents, vague concepts, and the undervaluation of sociocultural influences.

What is the information processing theory in cognitive development?

It posits that cognitive development involves changes in mental 'hardware' (neural structures) and 'software' (processes).

How does attention improve in children?

Attention improves over time and can be enhanced at earlier ages through activities like pretend play.

What are the two types of attention responses?

Orienting (emotional or physical reaction to unfamiliar stimuli) and habituation (lessened reactions after repeated exposure).

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process where neutral stimuli can elicit a response that was previously caused by another stimulus.

What are critical aspects of memory development by ages 2 or 3?

Children can remember events, forget them over time, and reactivate seemingly forgotten memories with cues.

What is autobiographical memory?

Memory created in response to significant events, contributing to a sense of self, and can be improved through detailed recall.

How does Vygotsky's theory differ from Piaget's regarding cognitive development?

Vygotsky emphasizes cognitive development as a social process dependent on interactions with more skilled individuals, while Piaget views it as solitary.

What is intersubjectivity in Vygotsky's theory?

A shared understanding among participants in an activity that facilitates learning.

What is guided participation?

Cognitive growth that occurs through structured activities with more skilled individuals.

What is the zone of proximal development?

The optimal range for learning where an individual can succeed with support, situated between failure and independent success.

What is scaffolding in education?

A teaching method that involves providing consistent but minimal help to support a learner's growth.

What is private speech according to Vygotsky?

Self-regulating through inner monologue, which aids cognitive development.

What are the key aspects of socioemotional development in early childhood?

Trust and attachment, emerging emotions, interactions with others, and the development of gender roles and identity.

What is Erikson's stage of trust vs. mistrust?

The first stage of psychosocial development where infants learn to trust caregivers and the environment.

How does experience influence learning in children?

Experience fosters learning by allowing children to discover inconsistencies or errors in their thinking.

What is the impact of pretend play on cognitive development?

Pretend play can enhance attention and cognitive skills in early childhood.

What is the significance of cues in memory recall?

Cues can reactivate seemingly forgotten memories, aiding in recall.

What is the balance between trust and mistrust in early development?

Hope, which is openness to new experiences tempered by wariness.

What stage of Erikson's psychosocial development occurs from 1 to 3 years?

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt, where the child learns to control their own actions.

What is the outcome of successfully navigating the autonomy vs. shame/doubt stage?

Will, which is the knowledge that a child can navigate the world within limits.

What stage of Erikson's development occurs from 3 to 5 years?

Initiative vs. guilt, where the child takes on responsibility and identifies with parents.

What is the significance of play in early childhood development?

Play serves as exploration and helps children develop purpose.

What are attachments in the context of socioemotional development?

Socioemotional relationships that increase the chance of survival.

What is secure attachment?

A prototype for successful relationships, characterized by comfort with loneliness and autonomy.

What are Bowlby's stages of attachment?

1) Pre-attachment stage (birth to 6-8 weeks), 2) Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 8 months), 3) True attachments (6 to 18 months), 4) Reciprocal relationships (18 months).

What is the internal working model in attachment theory?

Expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness.

What characterizes avoidant attachment?

The baby is not upset by separation and ignores the mother upon return.

What are the characteristics of resistant attachment?

Separation upsets the baby, who remains upset after the mother returns and is difficult to console.

What is disorganized attachment?

The baby reacts in contradictory ways, seeking proximity but showing confusion.

What are basic emotions, and when do they occur?

Basic emotions include joy, sadness, anger, fear, distress, disgust, interest, and surprise, occurring by 8-9 months.

What are complex emotions, and when do they emerge?

Complex emotions include guilt, embarrassment, pride, regret, and shame, emerging between 18-24 months.

What is the role of cognitive processes in regulating emotions?

Redirecting attention and reappraising the situation.

What are the types of play in early childhood?

1) Parallel play (<12 months), 2) Simple social play (15-18 months), 3) Cooperative play (24 months).

What is the impact of parental involvement on children's peer relations?

Improved peer relations when parents engage as playmates, social directors, coaches, and mediators.

What is prosocial behavior?

Behavior that benefits others, increasing with age and dependent on empathy.

What influences the development of prosocial behavior in children?

Modeling warmth and concern, reasoning in discipline, and providing opportunities for social interaction.

What are gender roles in the context of socioemotional development?

Societal expectations that guide behavior, learned early through gender-stereotyped toys.

What are some gender-related differences in abilities?

Girls tend to have larger vocabularies and better memory, while boys excel in spatial ability.

What is gender identity according to gender-scheme theory?

Children learn about activities and objects based on whether they are masculine or feminine.

What is Piaget's sensorimotor period?

The stage from birth to 2 years where understanding objects and symbols develops.

What characterizes the pre-operational period in Piaget's theory?

Egocentrism, centration, and appearance as reality, occurring from 2 to 7 years.

What is the concrete operational period in Piaget's stages?

The stage from 7 to 11 years where logical thinking about concrete events develops.

What is the formal operational period in Piaget's theory?

The stage from 11 years onward where abstract and hypothetical thinking develops.

What are the key aspects of information processing in cognitive development?

Changes in mental hardware (neural structures) and software (processes) including attention, learning, and memory.

What are effective memory strategies used by older children?

Organization, elaboration, and external aids like note-taking.

What is metacognition?

The ability to identify effective strategies for specific memory problems.

What is metamemory?

The ability to assess memory problems, select a strategy, and monitor effectiveness.

Define cognitive self-regulation.

Identifying goals, selecting strategies, and monitoring accuracy.

What is the relationship between intelligence and heredity?

Adopted children's IQ tends to be more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents.

How does the environment influence intelligence?

Parenting styles can significantly impact a child's IQ.

What is the most important takeaway regarding IQ?

IQ can change over time.

What are family relationships considered in developmental psychology?

Families are seen as systems, which are collections of contextual, interacting elements.

How do family systems relate to social systems?

Family systems are embedded in social systems that impact them.

What are the two general dimensions of parenting?

Warm/responsive versus hostile/uninvolved, and extreme control versus no control.

What is psychological control in parenting?

It targets how children feel.

What is behavior control in parenting?

It targets how children behave.

List the four primary parenting styles.

Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved.

Describe the authoritarian parenting style.

High control and low warmth/responsiveness.

Describe the authoritative parenting style.

High control and warm/responsive.

Describe the permissive parenting style.

Low control and warm/responsive.

Describe the uninvolved parenting style.

Low control and low warmth/responsiveness.

How can culture impact parenting styles?

For example, low socioeconomic status may lead to higher control and punitive parenting.

What is the impact of chronic parental conflict on children?

It creates a sense of instability and promotes feelings of anxiety, fear, and sadness.

What parenting style involves giving orders while explaining how, when, and why?

Direction instruction.

What is the term for observing and imitating behaviors?

Modeling.

What is counter imitation?

Observing behavior and learning not to do it.

What are the serious drawbacks of punishment in parenting?

It only stops behavior temporarily if not replaced with new behaviors and can lead to various negative outcomes.

What is the effect of parental divorce on children?

Children may have issues with school, conduct, and self-concept, and are more likely to have negative marriage attitudes.

What factors influence sibling relationships?

Same sex, good emotional regulation, good relationships between parents, and good parenting.

How does birth order affect firstborn children?

Parents have higher expectations, are more affectionate, and firstborns tend to have higher IQs.

What are the characteristics of later-born children?

Parents are more relaxed, they are less concerned about pleasing parents, more outgoing, and take more risks.

What is the significance of friendships in preschoolers?

Preschoolers choose friends based on interests.