AP Psychology Development

nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

nurture

environment

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

genetic mutations

an alteration in a gene that changes the instructions within the gene; some mutations result in biological dysfunction

rooting

a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

visual cliff experiment

created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth

critical periods

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

sensitive period

a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

menarche

the first menstrual period

spermarche

first ejaculation

Object Permanence (Piaget)

concept, gained in infancy, that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from view

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Egocentrism (Piaget)

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

theory of mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

cooing

early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

babbling

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds

one-word stage

the stage in which children speak mainly in single words

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)

microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

mesosystem

provides connections across microsystems

exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

chronosystem

historical changes that influence the other systems

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence

avoidant attachment

attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others

anxious attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

identity

our sense of self