AO1 Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father

Attachment

A strong, long-lasting emotional tie or bond between two people. It is characterised by behaviours such as proximity seeking, separation distress and pleasure on reunion

Reciprocity

The actions of one person get a response from the other person, although the response is not necessarily the same.

Interactional synchrony

Behaviour is synchronised when it is carried out at the same time.

Meltzoff and Moore’s method

Conducted a controlled observation with infants 2 - 3 weeks old. The adult displayed 1 of 3 facial expression and 1 hand gesture. The behaviour/facial expressions of infants in response to these were observed and recorded.

Meltzoff and Moore’s findings

They found that there was an association between the behaviour of the infant and that of the adult model.

Tronick’s method

Filmed controlled observation of mothers with their baby to observe changes in the infants behaviour when reciprocity stops. 3 stages were used for this study: normal face to face caregiver-infant social interaction, a still face episode where the caregiver keeps an unresponsive poker face, and a reunion episode where normal face to face interactions resume.

Tronick’s findings

During the still-face episode, there was an increase in gaze-aversion, a decrease in positive mood, an increase in visual scanning, pick-me-up gestures, distancing behaviour such as twisting and turning and physiological stress indicators such as heart rate and cortisol changes. Showing the babies were upset and confused when the mother would not engage and that babies are not passive in their interactions with caregivers and have an active role in reciprocal interactions. It also highlights the importance of care-giver interactions in the bonding process.

Schaffer and Emerson’s method

Carried out a large-scale longitudinal study that lasted for 2 years. They followed 60 infants, aged from 5-23 weeks, from a mainly working class area of Glasgow, The infants were observed every four weeks until they were 1 year old and then again at 18 months. Attachment was measured in two ways: Using separation anxiety and using stranger anxiety.

Schaffer and Emerson’s findings

Between 25 and 32 weeks of age half the babies showed separation anxiety towards a specific adult. Attachment tended to be to the caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to infants signals and facial expressions. This was not necessarily the person who spent most time with the infant. By 40 weeks 80% of the babies had a specific attachment and 30% displayed multiple attachments.

Stage 1 - Asocial stage

Birth to 2 months. Babies respond to people in much the same way as they do to objects, and to voices much the same as to sounds. They don't distinguish between different people.

Stage 2 - indiscriminate stage

2 to 7 months. Infants can distinguish between people and things, show sociability towards people over inanimate objects. They are not attached. They show no fear of strangers and can be comforted by anyone. Reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in establishing the infant’s relationships but this is not oriented towards specific individuals.

Stage 3 - specific attachment stage

7 to 12 months. Babies in this stage show separation protest, separation anxiety and stranger fear. They typically form a strong primary attachment figure. This is the person who is most responsive to the baby’s signals.

Stage 4 - multiple attachments

After demonstrating attachment behaviours towards one primary caregiver, babies typically extend this towards other adults with whom they spend time.

Traditional role of the father

Traditionally, fathers have played a minor role in parenting, some argue that males are biologically unsuitable to raise children. In the past children were raised mainly by married couples, with the father going out to work to provide resources for his family, while the mother stayed at home to look after her children until they were school age.

Current role of the father

It is normal for mothers to have a job. In 2013, 5.3 million British mothers were in employment, with males comprising nearly 10 % of those who care for children while their partner goes out to work. Also, 9% of British single parents are male.

Field study into the role of the father

Filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver father’s and primary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than secondary caregiver fathers. These are all features of reciprocity and interactional synchrony so part of the process of attachment formation. Therefore, fathers can be emotion-focussed primary attachment figures in the same way mothers can, but only if they have the role of the primary caregiver.

Grossman’s method

Carried out a longitudinal study where babies attachments were studied until they were into their teens. The researchers looked at both parent’s behaviour and its relationship to the quality of their babies later attachments with other people.

Grossman’s findings

Quality of babies’ attachment with mothers was related to relationship behaviour in adolescence. This suggests that attachments to fathers is less important than attachments to mothers. However, Grossman found that the quality of fathers play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different role than mothers; one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional development.