AP Psych Unit 4 - Social Psychology and Personality

actor/observer bias

The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities.

altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

attributions

An inference regarding the cause of a person's behavior or an interpersonal event.

belief perseverance

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were informed has been discredited.

burnout

Physical, emotional, or mental exhaustion accompanied by decreased motivation, lowered performance, and negative attitudes toward oneself and others.

bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if others are present; research indicates that both situational and attentional variables impact whether someone is likely to help.

central route to persuasion

Attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

cognitive dissonance

We act to reduce discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.

cognitive load

The relative demand imposed by a particular task, in terms of mental resources required.

collectivism

A social or cultural tradition that emphasizes the group rather than the individual.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

diffusion of responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when surrounded by others.

discrimination

The unjust and differential treatment of members of different groups based on characteristics such as age, gender, race, or religion.

dispositional attributions

The tendency to assign responsibility for others' behaviors to their inherent characteristics rather than external influences.

door-in-the-face technique

Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment.

elaboration likelihood model

Theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route.

ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

explanatory style

An individual's unique way of describing and explaining events.

external locus of control

The perception that outside forces determine one's fate.

false consensus effect

The tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

foot-in-the-door technique

When people agree to a small request and later comply with a larger request.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate personal characteristics and underestimate situational influences on behavior.

group polarization

Enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives.

halo effect

A rating bias where a general evaluation of a person influences judgments of that person on specific dimensions.

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that individuals hold but may be unaware of.

in-group bias

The tendency to favor one's own group.

individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals.

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

The branch of psychology that studies human behavior in the work environment.

informational social influence

Influence resulting from the acceptance of others' opinions as reality.

internal locus of control

The perception that one controls their own fate.

just-world phenomenon

The belief that the world is just and people get what they deserve.

mere-exposure effect

Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

multiculturalism

The promotion of cultural diversity within a society.

normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

obedience

Compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands from authority.

optimistic explanatory style

An attributional style that explains negative events with external and unstable factors.

out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members.

peripheral route to persuasion

Attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues.

person perception

The processes by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate others.

persuasion

An active attempt to change another person's attitudes or beliefs.

pessimistic explanatory style

An attributional style characterized by internal and stable attributions for negative events.

prejudice

An unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members.

prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

relative deprivation

The perception that one has less of a desired resource than a comparison standard.

role

Set of expectations about a social position.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

self-serving bias

The tendency to assign credit for success to oneself and blame failures on external factors.

situational attributions

Attributing behavior to external causes rather than internal characteristics.

social comparison

Evaluating one's own abilities in relation to those of others.

social facilitation

Stronger responses on simple tasks in the presence of others.

social influence theory

Proposes that social pressure can be normative or informational.

social loafing

People exert less effort when pooling their efforts in a group.

social norms

Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior.

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

social reciprocity norm

The standard that people who help others will receive equivalent benefits.

social responsibility norm

The expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

social trap

A situation in which conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

stereotype

Cognitive generalizations about the qualities of members of a group.

superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require cooperation.

agreeableness

A personality dimension that includes trust, altruism, and kindness.

Big Five theory

A model of primary dimensions of individual differences in personality.

collectivist culture

Prioritizing the goals of one's group and defining identity accordingly.

conscientiousness

A personality dimension describing someone organized and responsible.

denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe painful realities.

displacement

Defense mechanism shifting negative impulses toward a less threatening object.

ego

The conscious part of personality that mediates among demands of the psyche.

ego defense mechanisms

Protective methods of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.

emotional stability

A personality dimension describing durability and resilience.

extraversion

A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable and assertive.

factor analysis

Statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items.

humanistic psychology

A perspective understanding personality by considering individual experience.

id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy striving for immediate gratification.

openness to experience

A personality dimension characterized by curiosity and open-mindedness.

personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

personality inventories

Questionnaires designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

preconscious mind

The level of psyche that contains thoughts not currently in awareness.

projection

Defense mechanism attributing one’s own threatening impulses to others.

projective test

A personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection.

psychodynamic theory

View of personality focusing on the unconscious and childhood experiences.

rationalization

Defensive mechanism providing self-justifying explanations for actions.

reaction formation

Defense mechanism switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, cognition, and environment.

regression

Defense mechanism retreating to earlier psychosexual stages when anxious.

repression

Defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness.

Rorschach test

Widely used projective test analyzing interpretations of inkblots.

self-actualization

The realization of one's potential and full engagement in life.

self-concept

One's description and evaluation of oneself.

self-efficacy

An individual's perception of their capability to perform.

self-esteem

The degree to which one's self-concept is perceived positively.

social-cognitive theory

A personality theory stating that traits and social environments influence behavior.

sublimation

Defense mechanism re-channeling unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

superego

Represents internalized ideals and standards for judgment.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test where people express inner feelings through stories.

trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or disposition.

trait theories

Personality theory emphasizing the lasting nature of personal characteristics.

unconditional positive regard

An attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

unconscious

A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts and feelings.