Cognition

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

Bottom-Up Processing "Details to Big Picture"

is a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with the small details and then building up to a complete perception

Top-Down Processing "Big Picture to Details"

involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations

Selective Attention

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

Cocktail Party Effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli

Inattentional Blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

Change Blindness

the failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

Gestalt Psychology

we perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than just a collection of parts

Perceptual Set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others

Figure-Ground

refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground)

Binocular Depth Cues

visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance
Retinal Disparity

Convergence

when our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

Monocular Depth Cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye

Relative Clarity

a depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away

Relative Size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

Texture Gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

Linear Perspective

a depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

Interposition

occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

Perceptual Constancies

our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes

Shape Constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes

Size Constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to grow or shrink

Color Constancy

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions

Apparent Movement

the perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement

Schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us

Memory

the persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved

Encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

Storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Multi-Store Model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period

It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most

Iconic Memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images

It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades

Echoic Memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information

It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli

Short-Term Memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds

It has a limited capacity

Long-Term Memory

the stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity

It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts

Working Memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information

Short-term and long-term memories combine

Central Executive

the control center of working memory

It manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory

Phonological Loop

component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

component of Working Memory that handles visual and spatial information

It allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation; is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory

Effortful Processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory

Automatic Processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks

Levels of Processing Model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered

Shallow Encoding

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning

Structural

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

Deep Encoding

involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

Chunking (Grouping)

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units

Categories (Grouping)

method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories

Hierarchies (Grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels

Mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory

They help in recalling information by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

Method of Loci

mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

Explicit Memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

Semantic Memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

Episodic Memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

Autobiographical Memory

type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life

Implicit Memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically

Procedural Memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

Prospective Memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point

Massed Practice “Cramming”

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks

Spacing Effect “Distributed Practice”

the phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session

Maintenance Rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

Retrieval Cues

stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind

They play a critical role in the process of retrieving memories,
Recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieve information from memory spontaneously)

Recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented

Context-Dependent Memory

when you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it

State-Dependent Memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood

Primacy Effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow

Recency Effect

phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle

Serial Position Effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle

Testing Effect

phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing

Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory

Self-Monitoring

Assessing one's own learning and memory processes, such as knowing when one knows something or not

Self-Regulation’ Adjusting strategies to improve learning and recall, like choosing to review material more thoroughly if understanding is not clear

The Forgetting Curve’ graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time

Encoding Failure

occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding

Proactive Interference

occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information

Retroactive Interference

occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it

Source Amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge

Anterograde Amnesia

memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact

Retrograde Amnesia

memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia

Infantile Amnesia

the phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4

Alzheimer’s Disease

progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

Repression

distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness

Constructive Memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed

Misinformation Effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events

Metacognition

thinking about one's own thinking processes

Executive Functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts