Global History II - Finals Terms

Gorbachev

Last leader of the USSR, who was in power from 1985 to the end of the USSR in 1991. He was less attached to the old ways of the USSR, and wanted to improve the economy and have democracy/more freedom in society. He was less of a hardliner, and did not emphasize communism as much in eastern Europe, leading to more independence movements.

Perestroika

Gorbachev's plan to restructure the government by creating new organizations and institutes, in order to try and improve the economy and government.

Glasnost

Gorbachev's policy of openness, in which there was less of a focus on censorship and oppression of free speech, and more of a focus on new ideas and criticism. Gorbachev wanted to try and improve society and increase innovation in the USSR to prevent the economy from falling behind

Boring Britain

Early 1970s Britain, in which the economy was declining and many British people were reevaluating their national identity due to decolonization. Britain was also not very modern, and there were few jobs and increasing boredom, leading people to feel like there was no future

Punk Rock Britain

Britain from 1976-1978, in which punk rock emerged in London and challenged the norms and the idea that Britain was conservative, old, and unchanging. -

Margaret Thatcher

The prime minister of Britain from 1979-1991, who believed that the economy should be about inflation/GDP, and not about jobs/consumer goods and prices. She was a neoliberalist, meaning she wanted to shrink the government and deregulate the economy. She was controversial for going against unions -

Thatcherism

Thatcher's neoliberal policy, which was focused on creating a small government and free trade/free market. Thatcherism focused on stopping protectionism and getting rid of the current British nanny state by shrinking the government and social welfare programs, and deregulating the economy.

1984 coal miners strike

Thatcher wanted to close coal mines because they were inefficient and hurt the economy, but the workers did not want to lose their jobs and go on unemployment, leading them to resist. Thatcher went against the union and put down riots w/ riot police. After, most people in the area were unable to get another job since there were none available -

West Germany

After Germany was split after WWII, the US/britain/french parts combined to become west germany, which set up a democratic and capitalist government. It had a better economy/quality of life than east germany, as it received aid from the allied powers, had many personal freedoms, and was more intentionally connected.

East Germany

After Germany was split after WWII, the USSR part became east germany, which set up a communist government. This government was a puppet government for the USSR, and east Germany remained in the USSR sphere of influence until the fall of the Berlin wall. It had a bad economy and quality of life, since it was under an authoritarian government and also could only receive USSR/Warsaw pact goods in trade.

Berlin airlift

In 1948, the USSR cut off US aid to west Germany with a blockade, as it wanted to take over all of Berlin. However, the allied powers were able to airlift resources to west berlin on a very large scale + outsmart the USSR, leading the USSR to lift the blockade and worsening tensions b/w east and west germany

Berlin wall

The wall was built in Berlin in 1961 which fell in 1989, and separated east (communist) and west (democratic/capitalist) Berlin. It was very militarized, and it was intended by the east german government to keep people inside of east Germany and consolidate its power. It represented the iron curtain

Stasi

The intelligence agency/secret police of East Germany from 1950-1990, which knew everything that occurred in east Germany. It ensured that the Berlin wall remained standing by acting as border police and passport control. It also tracked/targeted anyone suspected of trying to flee, and kept track of all ordinary citizens

Mao

The founder and leader of the Chinese communist Party, who both came up with the CCP ideology and also harshly enforced it. Even after his death in 1976, despite the deaths from the great leap forward/cultural revolution, he remained revered by the gov/ordinary people in order to keep the legitimacy of the CCP

1972 Panda diplomacy

When Nixon visited China in 1972 to reflect how China/the West were more open to each other, Nixon's wife went as well. She was seen as the voice of diplomacy for Nixon, and secured 2 pandas for the US, representing friendship b/w the 2 countries

1 child policy

Since China was running out of money and resources, Deng Xiaoping created this policy to reduce the Chinese population. It led many girls to be killed, given up for adoption, or go missing, since boys were seen as more favorable due to confucianism

Deng Xiaoping

The president after Mao, who was in power from 1976 until 1992. He was denounced during the cultural revolution for going against Mao, but survived + regained political power. As leader, he mainly focused on developing the economy by instituting more capitalist economic reforms, and did not enact many cultural reforms. He preserved Mao's good image and never directly denounced him, to preserve the legitimacy of the CCP

Hu Yao Bang

Government official who was ousted from the CCP in 1987 because he supported a pro-democracy student protest and opposed repressive CCP policies. He died in spring 1989, and people gathered in tian an men to honor his legacy of reform, which sparked the Tiananmen square protests

Tiananmen Square Protest

A pro-democracy student protest, in which they wanted dialogue with the government as they believed that their freedom/right to democracy was being violated. Many were angry about the lack of cultural reform from Deng and felt disconnected from the communist party, which was corrupt and ineffective. On 6/3/1989, the government sent troops to kill the protestors, and continued to kill/arrest those involved after the protests ended

Hunger strike

A nonviolent protest in which protestors do not eat or drink to draw attention to the issue/put pressure on authorities. It was used by students during the tiananmen square protests leading up to the massacre in June, and was publicized/shown globally. These also occured in Northern ireland in 1981.

Tankman

A man who stood in front of a tank during the Tiananmen Square protest. He became a symbol of the protest world wide, and signified the fight between democracy and authoritarianism in China, and that China has not changed as much as people thought.

Velvet revolution

An nonviolent uprising against the USSR in Czechoslovakia that started because of a false rumor that the police had killed a student protestor. It was led by Havel, and resulted in the communist leadership losing authority and resigning, and Havel becoming president and creating a new democratic government.

Fall of the berlin wall

As the authority/power of the USSR decreased under Gorbachev's rule, the east German government also lost power, forcing it to reduce travel restrictions. Although the government intended to slowly reduce the restrictions, a mistake by a gov official, in which he said that the wall was open, ultimately resulted in the wall falling very quickly

2 + 4 agreement

The 1990 German unification agreement, which declared Germany as sovereign, and allowed it to choose its own allies. Germany immediately left the Warsaw pact and joined Nato, officially becoming a part of western Europe. There were many cultural shocks during reunification, as the quality of life in east germany had been significantly lower

Boris Yeltsin

A Russian reformer, who initially believed that Gorbachev was not doing enough to modernize the USSR. During the August coup, he protested against the hardliners and advocated for democracy, and was seen as a hero by most Russians. He became the new leader of Russia after the USSR collapsed, and made Russia democratic/capitalist

August coup

A coup against Gorbachev by USSR hardliners in the gov/military, who thought that his reforms were bad for the USSR. Gorbachev was on house arrest, leading Boris Yeltsin to protest the coup and be seen as the hero. After the coup, the communist party lost all credibility, and in the following months, most Soviet republics declared independence

Shock therapy

Yeltsin's policy of eliminating the state-run economy and introducing market reforms immediately. However, this rapid transition from socialism to capitalism caused hyperinflation, allowed for the rise of oligarchs, and worsened the economic divide. It led many Russians to see capitalism and democracy as bad, and caused them to support harsher leaders, such as Putin.

Privatization

The transition of industry/business from public to private ownership. During shock therapy, wealthy citizens with insider information were able to buy all of the privatization checks and become extremely wealthy, increasing the wealthy gap in russia

Oligarch

People who are both extremely wealthy and also have a lot of political ties and influence. They arose in Russia because of privatization during shock therapy, and were expected to help the Russian president stay in power by loaning money to the gov in exchange for industry/property, and vice versa.

Putin

The current president of Russia who succeeded Yeltsin, and used to be a KGB official/spy. He leads an authoritarian and militaristic government, with very tight media control and a lot of propaganda, and is supported by a select group of oligarchs. He believes in Russian nationalism, and wants to regain former USSR territories. He is against western influence, and is worried about NATo moving too close to Russia.

NATO

A political + military alliance started after WWII, which was intended to solidify the US bloc during the cold war. After the fall of the ussr, NATO expanded quickly and became very strong, as many former USSR countries joined

Russia-Ukraine war

An ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia, which began in 2022. Tensions b/w Russia and Ukraine began in 2014, when Ukraine was about to join NATO, before a pro-Russian government came into power and Putin annexed parts of Ukraine. Since 2014, tensions have continuously risen, until 2021, when Putin decided to invade Ukraine fully in order to push NATO back and reclaim land that he believed belonged to Russia

Ukraine

A previous USSR republic. By the mid-2000s, it was one of the only former USSR republics that was not a part of NATO. However, when it tried to join NATO in 2014, it was stopped by Russia.

Cultural hegemony

The process by which the ruling class naturalizes its domination by making its own worldview seem like common sense and an absolute truth, and squashing all opposing ideas. These ideas are spread through literature and media.

Orientalism

A form of cultural hegemony, in which Europeans portrayed the middle east as stuck in the past and uncivilized, while portraying themselves as advanced and superior, and thus meant to dominate. The ideas of orientalism were very embedded in european society, allowing the west to justify its economic colonization/harsh domination of the middle east.

Edward Said

The author of the book orientalism, which was one of the first criticisms of orientalism and western imperialism.

Latent orientalism

The underlying ideas in orientalism that are assumed and hard to distinguish in society. These ideas have not changed much over time, and are mainly that the Middle East is stuck in the past/uncivilized.

Manifest orientalism

The parts of orientalism that are explicitly said outloud, such as specific details about middle eastern society. These examples can change over time and depend on the author/person who is discussing them.

Yugoslavia

A sovereign state in Europe that had multiple semi-autonomous states, ruled over by a central government. It was intended to unite all slavic groups in one country to ensure that they had self-determination, even though each group had different culture + religion. Although it was communist, it was independent from the USSR, and was instead part of the non-aligned movement.

Tito

The president of Yugoslavia from 1948-1980, who used repressive policies to limit regional nationalism and ethnic division in the country. He kept Yugoslavia united and stable until his death in 1980, after which the power of the central government drastically decreased.

Milosevic

President of Serbia from 1989-1997, who was very nationalist and wanted Serbia to have the most power in Yugoslavia. When he became president, he launched Serbia on a crusade to take over Yugoslavia and regain what he viewed as its rightful land and territory.

Serbia

The largest republic within Yugoslavia, which was led by Milosevic and took over much of Yugoslavia during the 1980s. The increase in Serbian nationalism led to the increase of nationalism in other Yugoslav republics, causing many to declare independence in 1991, until only serbia and montenegro remained a part of yugoslavia

Kosovo

An independent region within Serbia that had semi-autonomous legal status, and was not a separate republic. When Milosevic became president, he got rid of this semi autonomy. However, Kosovo mainly consisted of Albanian muslim, who did not want to be controlled by serbia, leading to tension w/ kosovon serbs and a war w/ serbia.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

A former yugoslavian republic that had three different ethnic groups, each with different political parties, that were not very committed to unity. The bosnian government was Muslim, leading bosnian christian serbs to boycott the government. The bosnian sers were supported by milosevic, and led to the boansian civil war and the genocide of bosnian muslims.

Bosnian civil war 1992-1995

The civil war in Bosnia between bosnian muslims, christian serbs, and catholic croats, which began as a result of tension b/w the bosnian muslim government and christian serbs, supported by milosevic. The bosnian/christian serbs comitted a genocide against te bosnian muslims, and the civil war only ended w/ invovlement from NATO.

Dayton accords 1995

The peace agreement that ended the Bosnian civil war from 1992-1995. It split Bosnia-Herzegovina up and made it a sovereign, dual state with a central government but territory divided between muslim Bosnians and christian Serbians, making B-H very unstable. It did not touch upon the issue of kosovo

Kosovo liberation army

A group of kosovan albanians who protested milosevic's harsh treatment of albans in kosovo. While they initially had a pacifist ideology, after being ignored by the dayton accordions, they began using violence against kosovan serbs

Kosovo war

The war between the kosovo liberation army and the serbian army, which began after the kosovo liberation army began attacking kosovan serbs, causing serbia to retaliate with violence. This war was so intense that NATO ended up becoming involved, ending the war

Kosovo resolution 1999

The resolution that ended the kosovo war and created international and civil military presence in kosovo

Protestant

The majority religion in the UK and northern Ireland, as a result of the UK encouraging protestants to move to Ulster. During the troubles, they were mainly allied w/ the UK and were known as loyalists

Catholic/nationalist

The majority religion in Ireland and a large minority group in northern Ireland. They were oppressed by the British, and targeted during the troubles, leading them to protest against British rule numerous times

Plantation of ulster

A piece of land in the northern part of Ireland that had a catholic majority originally. THey rebelled against England/the crown in the early 1600s, causing England to retaliate by removing catholics and giving their land to protestants, resulting in Ulster having a protestant majority and creating division within ireland

1845 potato famine

A potato famine in Ireland that caused the population and economy in Ireland to decline. During the famine, England used the policy of Malthus and refused to provide aid to Ireland/forced Ireland to continue exporting food to britain, causing tensions b/w the irish and the british to increased

Home rule bill

A bill that grants a country self-governance. In the late 1800s, there were many attempts within Ireland to pass one, and one was ultimately passed in the early 1900s. However, the British did not act on it, citing WWI as an excuse

Easter rising 1916

A week-long, violent rebellion by Irish nationalists who were angry that Britain refused to act on the home rule bill, leading to many casualties until Britain put the rebellion down. England killed the leaders of the uprising, leading them to become martyrs and increasing tensions b/w the irish and the british

Anglo-irish war

IRA launched guerilla war against Britain because wanted full independence. Britain initially partitioned Ireland into north and south ireland to try and resolve the conflict, keeping both as part of the UK but allowing them to have everyday autonomy. However, the IRA continued to fight/did not accept this, leading Britain to compromise and allow south ireland to become an autonomous dominion.

Irish civil war

A war in south ireland between the people who supported and the people who were against an independent Ireland/autonomy. The supports ultimately won

republic of ireland

In 1949, south ireland became the independent republic of ireland. It has a catholic majority and is completely separate from the british

north ireland

In 1949, although south ireland was given independence from the british, north ireland remained a part of the UK due to its protestant majority. It only has everyday autonomy

Gerrymandering

The process of manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts in order to give a political party/social group an unfair political advantage. A lot of gerrymandering occurred in Ireland, meaning that all regions had a political protestant majority, even when there were more catholics. This stripped Catholics of all political power

Troubles

The 30 year period (late 1960s - 1990s) during which there was extreme tension and violence between the protestant unionists/loyalists and the catholic nationalists within northern ireland. As Irish nationalism grew, so did the violence of the British response, creating cycles of violence.

Battle of the bogside

A battle that occurred in bogside, a primarily catholic neighborhood, b/w unionist marches are catholic residents, as a result of the discrimination against catholics in northern ireland. It led to many days of rioting and increased anger in the catholic community. This battle is considered the start of the troubles

Irish Republican Army

A paramilitary organization made up of Irish nationalists/catholics, and which had both violent and political branches. It organized violent attacks against the British and protestant northern Irish forces, and wanted to unite Ireland and make northern Ireland independent .

Falls curfew

A curfew in a catholic neighborhood 1970, in which the British soldiers searched the neighborhood for any signs of involvement with the IRA, and prevented people from leaving the neighborhood after a certain hour. Catholics felt like their rights were being stripped, any many refused to follow the curfew

Operation demetrius / internment

Began in 1971, and allowed for internment without a trial and indefinite detainment of people suspected of being in the IRA. During this time, the British accused many innocent Catholics of being in the IRA and imprisoned them, as the British thought that it was the best way to defeat the IRA. internment increased resentment and led to more people joining the IRA

Bloody Sunday 1972

A civil rights march by Irish nationalists to the city center of Derry, protesting internment. While soldiers initially only made arrests, they later opened fire and killed/injured many protestors

Irish hunger strikes 1981

When Margaret Thatcher revoked the political prisoner status of people intended for being in the IRA, and instead classified them as criminals, many protested the criminal label and the bad treatment within prisoners with hunger strikes. These hunger strikes led to a lot of media attention and pressure on british gov

Assasination of lord mountbatten

Lord Mountbatten was assassinated by the IRA in 1979 when vacationing in Ireland, as he was considered a representative of th crown/british government, nad the IRA wanted to send a message

Good Friday Agreement (1998)

The agreement that ended the troubles, as both sides were tired of fighting. The agreement was formed in 1998, and proposed that northern Ireland stay in the UK but release prisoners, have economic reforms, allow nationalists/loyalists would share power in governing northern ireland, and provide catholics with more protections

Referendum

The agreement was given to people in northern Ireland and Ireland so that the people could vote on whether they liked/agreed with it and wanted to sign it. Ultimately, both sides signed the agreement, ending the conflict

Afrikaners

Descendants of dutch people in south africa, who were a minority white population in south africa. Due to their minority status and lack of wealth, the Afrikaners were very committed to white supremacy and the idea of a separate Afrikaner identity, leading them to discriminate against indigenous South Africans in order to try and gain more power.

Afrikaner National Party

The party that took power in 1948 and instituted the apartheid system, as the only thing supporting the government was white supremacy, since indigenous people were the majority.

Apartheid

A legal system of racial discrimination, which began in 1948 and ended in 1990. The first few laws were passed in the early 1950s, but the government kept on adding laws. The system kept different races apart from each other in all aspects of life and society, and was intended to ensure that the minority white population could keep its power

Township

Towns outside of cities that were very small, poor, and crowded. As part of apartheid laws, people of color were forced to move from the cities they lived into the surrounding townships, and their land was given away

Pass law

An internal passport system designed to racially segregate the population in South Africa. It restricted the movement of people of color requiring them to have a passport to travel b/w segregated areas, confining them to their designated areas. It became a symbol of apartheid and how apartheid limited freedom of POC

Sharpeville massacre 1960

In 1960, the police opened fire against peaceful protestors in the Sharpeville township. Pictures and stories from the massacre gained a lot of media attention, and changed the international view of South Africa, which had been seen as a relatively peaceful country

African National Congress

An illegal political resistance group in South Africa that protested foreign presence and apartheid. It formed in the early 1900s, and originally focused on peaceful protests. However, by the 1960s, many younger members wanted to do more and use violence, leading to a new violent branch of the ANC called the spear of the nation, which committed sabotage against the government

Nelson Mandela

The leader of the spear of the nation sector of the ANC, who led many of the sabotage efforts and protests. He was imprisoned for over 2 decades after being caught planning sabotage, and wrote a lot in jail, allowing him to stay extremely popular and remain important in the anti-apartheid movement. He later became the president of south africa

Rivonia trial

In 1963, the police caught the ANC leaders with documents connecting to sabotage and guerilla warfare against the government. These leaders were sentenced to life in prison in 1964 for threatening South African security, which hurt the ANC/other organizations and allowed for newer political figures to emerge in the anti-apartheid movement

Soweto uprising 1976

A 1976 protest in the Soweto township, in which students from different schools came together to protest against how all the classes were taught in Afrikaans. Although the protest started off as peaceful, when the police killed a young boy, the protest turned violent and gained international attention.

Black consciousness movement

An anti-apartheid movement, led by Steve Biko, which argued that there should be no minority/majority in society, and that everyone should have the same rights and standing before the law.

1985 state of emergency

Violence escalated a lot during 1985, which the South African police claimed was mainly due to conflict between different black anti-apartheid groups. However, the majority of violence was actually committed by the white police against black groups, and the police had very little restraint

comprehensive anti-apartheid act of 1986

In 1986, since the cold war was at its end and the violence in South Africa could no longer be ignored, the US enacted sanctions against South Africa through this act.

FW De Klerk

The last apartheid president of south africa, who recognized that south africa could not continue to be stable with the apartheid legal system, as it was causing South Africa's economy and diplomatic relations to decline. As a result, he decided to peacefully end apartheid and allow for new elections.

defacto segregation

The current system of segregation within South Africa since apartheid ended. Even though there is no more legal segregation, there is still defacto segregation in society, job, and education, as people of color still have little access to education and live in townships

Truth and reconciliation committee

The South African government's solution to moving past apartheid, in which they allowed victims and perpetrators to give their full, truthful testimony in front of a committee, and be cleared of charges. This system encourages more people to tell the truth, and allow for the many horrors of apartheid to be acknowledged.

Tutsi

A socio-economic group within Rwanda that had more money and power, and owned land. However, after Rwanda became colonized by belgium, the belgium made the tutsi an ethnic group, and favored them/gave them more political power and legal rights.

Hutu

The other socioeconomic group within Rwanda that had less money and power, and often worked the land owned by the Tutsi. Belgium also made them into an ethnic group, and limited their political power.

compulsory identity cards

A system within Rwanda, enacted in 1926, in which each person received a card labeling them as either hutu or tutsi. This system emphasized the new ethnic distinction b/w the hutu and the tutsi/

Hutu revolution 1959-1960

As Tutsi nationalism increased during the mid 20th century, Belgium began supporting the Hutu instead, as it provided them w/ more power. In 1959, the hutu persecuted and pushed out the tutsi to a neighboring country, and Belgian troops appointed many hutu chiefs to replace the tutsi political leaders.

Rwanda patriotic force

A paramilitary organization formed by the children of tutsi exiles living outside of the country, who were unable to return to Rwanda due to the majority Hutu government. As a result, the RPF invaded Rwanda from Uganda from 1990-1992

1992 ceasefire

A ceasefire of the RPF's invasion of Rwanda, which was supposed to allow the Tutsi to return home and have more power in society/the government. Although UN troops were sent to Rwanda to enforce the ceasefire, it ultimately failed due to the Hutu spreading propaganda about the Tutsis, and inciting a genocide.

Rwandan genocide

The genocide of the Tutsis in Rwanda (as well as Hutu sympathizers), which began when the Hutu president plane was shot down and governemnt officials were killed by Hutu extremists, as the Hutu government had been encouraging the ceasefire. The genocide was encouraged by Hutu propaganda, which was mainly spread by radio, and also led many tutsi to flee Rwanda.

RTLM

The radio station, led by Kabuga, spread propaganda insulting and demonizing the Tutsi. It used popular music to attract the youth and engage listeners, gamifying killing during the genocide. It also allowed for the genocide to be more organized, as there was more communication

HIV

A retrovirus that weakens the immune system, and which can be contacted through infected blood, mother-infant, sharing needles, sex. However, it does not spread through touch, saliva, etc., which was a popular myth that spread during the epidemic, and led to the marginalization of people/communities with. Up until drugs were developed in 1996, HIV was a death sentence.

AIDS

Late stage HIV, which occurs once the immune system decreases past a certain point. It allows for people to get opportunist infections that healthy people do not, and leads to death.

Neoliberalism

A political ideology that advocated for a free market and John Locke ideas, including the idea that the government should protect the rights of the people. It believed that a free market and a small government were the best conditions for peace and prosperity, and did not believe that the gov should give a lot of money and help to the lower classes.

Mbeki

The president of South Africa after Nelson Mandela, who spread misinformation about HIV/AIDS. He claimed that HIV/AIDS was caused by poverty, and that thus the virus in the US was different from the virus in Africa. His denial led to more deaths because of HIV in South Africa and delayed the development of drugs.

Afghanistan

The country that the USSR invaded in the 1970s, in order to try and increase its global influence and spread communism. The USSR took over this country's existing government, and brought this country under its rule, leading to many protests by islamic extremists.

Mujahideen

Islamic resistance groups in Afghanistan, who protested the communist gov/USSR presence in Afghanistan. There were many different groups, which each had a different end goal and ethnic majority, though most were islamic extremists. The US supported many of these groups, making the soviet-afghan war a proxy war.