Midterm 3 Review: Learning, Memory, and Emotions

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering essential vocabulary and concepts from chapters and lectures on learning, memory, emotions, and related brain functions.

Sensory Memory

The initial stage of memory that holds sensory information for a few seconds.

Short-term Memory

Memory that temporarily holds information for minutes.

Long-term Memory

Memory that can store information for hours to a lifetime.

Declarative Memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled, including facts and events.

Non-declarative Memory

Memory that does not require conscious thought, such as skills and habits.

Hippocampus

A brain area crucial for forming new declarative memories.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that transmits signals across synapses.

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

The strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that creates an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and learning.

Amygdala

A brain region that plays a key role in processing emotions.

Inattentional Blindness

A psychological phenomenon wherein an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus that is in plain sight.

Thirst

The sensation that prompts the need to drink fluids.

Hypovolemic Thirst

Thirst that arises from low blood volume.

Osmotic Thirst

Thirst that arises from high salt concentration in the blood.

Hormones

Chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.

Circadian Rhythms

Physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a daily cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when an individual acts and when the individual observes the same action performed by another.

What are the three stages of memory?

Sensory buffers, short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM)

What is working memory?

A form of short-term memory used to temporarily store and manipulate information.

What is memory consolidation?

Repeated activation of memories that enables long-term storage.

What type of memory was impaired in Patient H.M.?

Declarative memory (could not form new declarative memories)

What memory type remained intact in H.M.?

Nondeclarative memory (skill learning)

What brain areas are important for declarative memory?

Hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, thalamus, mammillary bodies

Where are long-term declarative memories ultimately stored?

Cortex

What brain structures are involved in nondeclarative memory?

Basal ganglia, cerebellum, neocortex, amygdala

What type of memory is classical conditioning?

Nondeclarative memory

What does operant conditioning involve?

Learning voluntary behaviors through consequences

What is LTD?

Long-term depression; synapse gets weaker

How does LTP strengthen synapses?

More AMPA receptors inserted, receptors become more conductive, increased neurotransmission

What blocks NMDA receptors at rest?

Mg²⁺ ion

What removes the Mg²⁺ block from NMDA receptors?

High synaptic activity/depolarization

What is presynaptic LTP?

Increased vesicle release from presynaptic neuron

What does “wire together, fire together” mean?

Neurons active together strengthen their connection

What is top-down attention?

Voluntary attention directed by goals

What is bottom-up attention?

Reflexive attention captured by stimuli

What is inattentional blindness?

Failure to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere

What is inhibition of return?

Attention briefly goes to a cue (~200 ms), then shifts elsewhere

What brain area controls overt eye-movement attention?

Superior colliculus

What brain area helps covert attention?

Pulvinar

What is the low road of emotion?

Thalamus → Amygdala → Hypothalamus → rapid bodily response

What is the high road of emotion?

Thalamus → Sensory cortex → Hippocampus → conscious feeling

Which pathway is faster: high road or low road?

Low road

What brain structure is central to fear/emotion responses?

Amygdala

What does the SCN regulate?

Circadian rhythms

What brain regions generate slow-wave sleep?

Forebrain (thalamus + cortex)

What brain region triggers REM sleep?

Pons

What brain region coordinates sleep states?

Hypothalamus

What are benefits of sleep?

Strengthens learning, declarative memory, synaptic cleanup

What does sleep do to unimportant synapses?

Synaptic depression/weakening

What detects hypovolemic thirst?

Baroreceptors

What causes osmotic thirst?

High solute concentration / dehydration

What hypothalamic neurons respond to osmotic thirst?

OVLT neurons

What hormone released by fat cells reduces hunger?

Leptin

Why is adipose tissue considered an endocrine organ?

It releases hormones like leptin

What are the three major hormone classes?

Peptide, amine, steroid

Where do peptide hormones bind?

Cell membrane receptors (often GPCRs)

Where do steroid hormones bind?

Inside the cell

Why do steroid hormones act slower?

They alter gene expression and protein production

What is the hormone pathway from brain to body?

Hypothalamus → Pituitary gland → Bloodstream → Body

What are the “3 F’s” influenced by hormones?

Feeding, fighting, mating

What does the anterior pituitary release?

GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL

What does the posterior pituitary release?

Oxytocin and vasopressin

Functions of oxytocin?

Milk letdown, contractions, bonding, maternal care

Functions of vasopressin?

Water balance, bonding, monogamy

What hormone is involved in stress response?

Cortisol

H.M.

hippocampus damage = no new declarative memories

LTP

strengthens synapses via AMPA receptors

NMDA

blocked by Mg²⁺ until depolarized

Leptin satiety hormone from fat

satiety hormone from fat