Lab Practical

Vital Signs

Four major indicators of health: Heart rate, Blood pressure, Respiratory rate, and Temperature.

Heart Rate (HR)

Normal range for adults at rest is 60–100 beats per minute (bpm).

Blood Pressure (BP)

Normal reading is approximately 120/80 mmHg, consisting of systolic (90–120) and diastolic (60–80) measurements.

Heart Sounds

Normal sounds include S1 (‘lub’) when AV valves close and S2 (‘dub’) when semilunar valves close.

Auscultation

The technique of listening to heart sounds using a stethoscope.

Korotkoff Sounds

Sounds of blood flow through arteries used to determine blood pressure.

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

The heart's primary pacemaker located in the right atrium.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that increases heart rate and contractility; uses norepinephrine and beta-1 receptors.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that decreases heart rate; uses acetylcholine and muscarinic receptors.

Blood Flow Pathway

Sequence of flow: Body → Superior/Inferior vena cava → Right atrium → Tricuspid valve → Right ventricle → Pulmonary valve → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Mitral valve → Left ventricle → Aortic valve → Aorta → Body.

Oxygenation

Right side of the heart handles deoxygenated blood while the left side handles oxygenated blood.

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Endocrine gland with anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) parts.

Anterior Pituitary

Darker, more cellular part of the pituitary gland producing hormones like GH and PRL.

Posterior Pituitary

Lighter, fibrous part of the pituitary gland storing hormones made in the hypothalamus.

Chromophobes

Pale cells in the anterior pituitary that are inactive.

Chromophils

Staining cells in the anterior pituitary that include acidophils and basophils.

Acidophils

Type of chromophil that produces Growth Hormone (GH) and Prolactin (PRL).

Basophils

Type of chromophil that produces FSH, LH, ACTH, and TSH.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland responsible for producing thyroid hormones T3 and T4.

Follicular Cells

Cells that produce T3 and T4 in the thyroid gland.

Calcitonin

Hormone secreted by parafollicular (C) cells in the thyroid gland that lowers blood calcium.

Adrenal Gland

Endocrine gland with an outer cortex (3 layers) and inner medulla.

Zona Glomerulosa

Outer layer of adrenal cortex that secretes Aldosterone.

Zona Fasciculata

Middle layer of adrenal cortex that secretes Cortisol.

Zona Reticularis

Inner layer of adrenal cortex that secretes Androgens.

Pancreas

Organ with endocrine function (islets of Langerhans) and exocrine function (digestive enzymes).

Alpha Cells

Cells in the pancreas that secrete Glucagon.

Beta Cells

Most abundant cells in the pancreas that secrete Insulin.

Delta Cells

Cells in the pancreas that secrete Somatostatin.

Pineal Gland

Small gland that secretes Melatonin.

Blood

Type of connective tissue consisting of plasma and formed elements.

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells that carry oxygen and lack a nucleus.

Leukocytes

White blood cells that play a role in immune response.

Platelets

Cell fragments involved in blood clotting.

Hematocrit

Percentage of blood volume that is made up of red blood cells, approximately 45%.

Leukocyte Order

Order of white blood cells from most to least: Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils.

EKG (ECG)

A recording of the electrical activity of the heart.

Lead (EKG)

Electrical view between electrodes on an EKG.

P Wave

Represents atrial depolarization in an EKG.

QRS Complex

Represents ventricular depolarization in an EKG.

T Wave

Represents ventricular repolarization in an EKG.

Spirometer

Device that measures lung volumes and capacities.

Tidal Volume (TV)

Volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath, approximately 500 mL.

Vital Capacity (VC)

Total amount of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation; VC = TV + IRV + ERV.

Lung Capacities

Combinations of lung volumes, including Vital Capacity and Total Lung Capacity.

Carbonic Acid–Bicarbonate System

Buffer system that helps maintain blood pH; HCO₃⁻ ⇌ H⁺.

Normal Blood pH

Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45.

Respiratory Acidosis

Condition characterized by increased CO₂ and decreased pH.

Respiratory Alkalosis

Condition characterized by decreased CO₂ and increased pH.