Amercian Politics midterm

Thomas Hobbes

Believed humans are naturally at war. Government is a Leviathan (powerful) needed to keep order. People give up rights for safety.

John Locke

Believed in Natural Rights (Life, Liberty, Property). Government is a Social Contract; it only rules with the Consent of the Governed. If it fails, the people can "break" the contract (revolt).

The Declaration of Independence

A formal legal brief against King George III. It heavily used Locke’s Social Contract theory to argue that because England violated the colonists' inalienable rights, the colonies had the right to be independent.

The Articles of Confederation

The U.S.'s first attempt at government. It was a Confederation (decentralized power), meaning states were like independent countries and the national government was intentionally very weak.

Weaknesses: No President (executive), no power to tax, no national army, and required unanimous consent to change anything.

Shays’ Rebellion

A revolt by farmers in Massachusetts. Because the national government had no army to stop it, it proved that the Articles of Confederation were too weak to handle a crisis. This led directly to the Constitutional Convention.

The Virginia Plan (Big states)

Wanted representation based on population (more people = more power).

New Jersey Plan(Small States)

Wanted equal representation (every state gets 1 vote)

The Great (Connecticut) Compromise

The solution to the "Big vs. Small State" debate. It created a Bicameral (two-house) legislature:

• House of Representatives: Based on population (helped big states).

• Senate: Two per state (helped small states).

The 3/5ths Compromise

An agreement that enslaved people would count as 3/5ths of a person for both representation (more seats in the House for the South) and for taxes paid to the government.

Factions (Federalist No. 10)

Madison defined factions as groups of people (like special interests or parties) who put their own interests above the public good. He argued that a large Republic is the best way to control them because they would cancel each other out.

Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances

• Separation: Dividing power into 3 branches (Legislative, Executive, Judicial).

• Checks: Giving each branch a way to stop the others (e.g., the President's Veto, or the Court declaring a law Unconstitutional).

Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights

• Civil Liberties: Your protection from government interference (e.g., Freedom of Speech).

• Civil Rights: Your guarantee of equal treatment under the law (e.g., not being discriminated against).

The Incorporation Doctrine

The process where the Supreme Court used the 14th Amendment to make the Bill of Rights apply to State governments, not just the Federal government

Prior Restraint

A government action that prevents speech or printing before it happens (censorship). The Supreme Court ruled in NY Times v. U.S. that the government generally cannot do this.

Brandenburg v. Ohio (Direct Incitement Test)

Established that the government can only punish speech if it is intended to, and likely to, cause "imminent lawless action" (immediate violence).

Plessy v. Ferguson vs. Brown v. Board of Education

• Plessy (1896): Created the "Separate but Equal" doctrine (legalized segregation).

• Brown (1954): Overturned Plessy; ruled that separate is inherently unequal in public schools.

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Banned discrimination in public places (hotels, restaurants) and employment.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Banned literacy tests and other tools used to prevent Black citizens from voting.

Enumerated vs. Reserved vs. Concurrent Powers

• Enumerated (Federal): Specifically listed in the Constitution (e.g., coining money, declaring war).

• Reserved (States): Guaranteed by the 10th Amendment (e.g., education, local elections).

• Concurrent (Shared): Powers both levels have (e.g., taxing, making laws).

Dual Federalism vs. Cooperative Federalism

• Dual (Layer Cake): Federal and State governments stay in their own separate lanes.

• Cooperative (Marble Cake): Started during the New Deal; Federal and State governments work together (blurred lines).

Categorical Grants vs. Block Grants

• Categorical: Federal money for a specific purpose with strict rules (strings attached).

• Block: Federal money for a broad area (e.g., healthcare) with more state flexibility.

Unfunded Mandates

When the Federal government commands states to do something (like No Child Left Behind) but provides no money to pay for it.

Why is U.S. Voter Turnout Low?

• Structural: Tuesday elections (not holidays), too many elections causing burnout.

• Institutional: Responsibility to register falls on the individual, not the government.

• Individual: Low political efficacy (feeling that your vote doesn't matter).

Heuristics (Voting Cues)

Shortcuts voters use to make decisions without perfect info (e.g., a candidate's party label or group endorsements).

The Literary Digest Poll Failure (1936)

A famous polling disaster that predicted Alf Landon would beat FDR. It was wrong because of selection bias: they polled people using car registrations and phone books, which only the wealthy had during the Great Depression.

Liberals vs. Conservatives

• Liberals: Favor a larger government to help the disadvantaged and protect social freedoms.

• Conservatives: Favor a smaller government, less business regulation, and "traditional" social values.