liberalism evidence

HESS COMPLETE

paragraphs if asked about liberal views on human nature

1. rationalism and individualism

2. freedom

3. equality and social justice

liberal agreement on rationalism and individualism (human nature)

• individuals are rational, autonomous and capable of improvement- justifies freedom and limited authority

• locke: ‘men being…by nature, all free, equal and independent’

• wollstonecraft: ‘i do not wish women to have power over men; but over themselves’

• rationalism means liberals prioritise the individual over society and reject paternalistic authority

• if individuals can reason, they must be trusted with autonomy

liberal disagreement on rationalism and individualism (human nature)

• disagree over how individuals best flourish- egoistical vs development individualism

• classical: support egoistical individualism (individuals flourish best when left alone so state should not interfere beyond protection of rights), locke: ‘every man has a property in his own persona’

• modern: support developmental individualism, individuals need support to realise potential, rawls in ‘a theory of justice’ argues life chances are shaped by social factors

• disagreement stems from different views of structural inequality rather than different views of human rationality- modern liberals argue rationality alone is insufficient without opportunity

liberal agreement on freedom (human nature)

• agree freedom is essential to human flourishing

• mill: ‘over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’

• locke argued for freedom of religion and conscience, state must not interefere

• freedom flows directly from rationalism = if humans can reason, they must be free to act on that reasoning

liberal disagreement on freedom (human nature)

• classicals = negative freedom (the absence of interference), nightwatchman state

• mill’s harm principle- power may only be exercised to prevent harm to others

• moderns = positive freedom (the ability to act meaningfully)

• rawls and wollstonecraft argue poverty, sexism and inequality restrict freedom

• so liberals disagree on what freedom actually is, not on whether it matters

liberal agreement on equality and social justice (human nature)

• foundational equality- equal moral work

• formal equality- equal legal status

• equality of opportunity

• wollstonecraft argued for legal and educational equality for women

• friedan in ‘the feminine mystique’ argued social barriers prevent women’s fulfilment: ‘equality is not a matter of sameness, but of opportunity’

liberal disagreement on equality and social justice (human nature)

• classicals = accept inequality of outcome as natural and fair, a result of merit

• moderns = support rawls’ view of strong equality of opportunity and social justice

• veil of ignorance- rational individuals would choose fairness without knowing their position

• modern liberals redefine fairness as compensating for disadvantage while classical liberals prioritise reward for merit

paragraphs if asked about liberal views on the state

1. liberal democracy

2. freedom and tolerance

3. equality and social justice

liberal agreement on liberal democracy (the state)

• limited gov, consent, constitutionalism, liberal democracy

• locke’s social contract theory, rule by consent

• mill believed a gov was necessary to maintain order

• support mechanisms like constitutions, checks and balances, rule of law

• liberals fear arbitrary power so have a shared emphasis on limitation and accountability

liberal disagreement on liberal democracy (the state)

• classicals = nightwatchman state (locke), mill feared tyranny of the majority

• mill proposed plural voting in ‘considerations on representative gov’

• moderns reject this as elitist, it contrasts with their commitment to political equality

• moderns = rawls favoured an enabling state: ‘justice is the first virtue of social institutions’

liberal agreement on tolerance and freedom (the state)

• freedom is the core liberal value, especially freedom of thought, expression and belief

• the state should have a role in protecting these freedoms from interference from others

• mill argued freedom of speech is essential for human progress- free debate allows truth to emerge and prevents intellectual stagnation of society

• importance of tolerance; pluralism and diversity strengthen society

liberal disagreement on tolerance and freedom (the state)

• disagreement over how freedom should be understood and how much the state should intervene to protect it

• classicals = negative freedom (freedom from interference)

• locke and hayek argue state intervention restricts individual liberty - state should be laissez-faire, intervening only to protect life, liberty, property

• moderns = positive freedom (freedom to fulfil potential), keynesian economics and state intervention

• T.H. Green argues poverty, illness and ignorance limit real freedom, justifying state intervention - leads to support for education, welfare and regulation, enabling individuals to be genuinely free

• classical liberals argue keynesian economics undermines personal responsibility and freedom

liberal agreement on equality and social justice (the state)

• foundational and formal quality, meaning that individuals are morally equal and should be treated equally under the law

• equality of opportunity

• they reject natural hierarchy and inherited privilege

• wollstonecraft argued women should have equal educational opportunities, not equal outcomes- ‘the mind has no sex’

liberal disagreement on equality and social justice (the state)

• disagree over how far the state should go in promoting social justice

• classicals = locke opposes redistribution, arguing it violates property rights and individual liberty

• redistribution risks creating dependency and undermining freedom

• inequality is acceptable if it results from free choices in a free market

• moderns = rawls argue justice requires active state intervention to reduce inequality

• veil of ignorance suggests rational individuals would support redistribution if unaware of societal position- justifies progressive taxation, welfare spending and public services

paragraphs if asked about liberal views on society

1. individualism and rationalism

2. equality and social justice

3. freedom and tolerance

liberal agreement on individualism and rationalism (society)

• society exists to serve the individual (a belief which comes from liberal rationalism and moral individualism)

• locke argues individuals exist prior to society and enter it voluntarily through contract: ‘men being…by nature, all free, equal and independent’

• mill sees society as a means to allow individual self development: ‘the object of education is not to make them carpenters, but men’

• liberals trust human rationality so they reject conservative views of society as an organic whole with authority over individuals- instead, society is instrumental, valued only insofar as it enables individual flourishing

liberal disagreement on individualism and rationalism (society)

• disagree over how society should be organised to help individuals flourish

• classicals = meritocracy (mill) and egoistical individualism (outcomes are shaped by talent, effort and choice so inequality is acceptable if it results from free competition)

• locke: ‘every man has a property in his person’

• moderns = developmental individualism (social background, class, gender distort opportunity)

• rawls in ‘a theory of justice’ argued society shapes life chances - justifies intervention to ensure individuals can genuinely exercise rational chocie

liberal agreement on equality and social justice (society)

• reject natural hierarchy and inherited status (unlike conservatives)

• foundational equality (individuals have equal moral worth), formal equality (equality before the law), equality of opportunity (positions should be open to talent)

• wollstonecraft: ‘virtue can only flourish amongst equals’

• equality is necessary for rational agency- if individuals are denied equal status or opportunity, their autonomy is undermined

liberal disagreement on equality and social justice (society)

• classicals = accept inequality of outcome as a natural/legitimate result of freedom

• mill argues forced equality would suppress individuality and excellence

• moderns = argue inequality often reflects structural injustice

• friedan highlights gendered barriers as ‘the problem that has no name’

• rawls’ veil of ignorance- moves liberalism closer to equality of outcome, contrasts with classical liberal meritocracy

liberal agreement on tolerance and freedom (society)

• a tolerant society is essential for individual freedom and rational progress

• mill defends free speech even for unpopular views

• tolerance protects truth, individual development and social progress

• tolerance is justified not on moral relativism, but on rationalism (free debate allows better ideas to emerge)

liberal disagreement on tolerance and freedom (society)

• classicals = negative freedom, society should restrain itself from interference, nightwatchman state (locke)

• moderns = argue tolerance alone is insufficient if individuals lack resources or security

• rawls: ‘liberty can be restricted only for the sake of liberty itself’

• they disagree over whether freedom requires non-interference or social support - conflicting visions of social responsibility

paragraphs if asked about liberal views on the economy

1. state intervention

2. equality and social justice

3. freedom

liberal agreement on state intervention (economy)

• they support capitalism, reject socialist state ownership and believe liberal democracy best enables economic growth and freedom

• rawls supports capitalism as it allows for self-fulfilment and individual liberty

• locke saw private property as a natural right and an extension of one’s labour

• capitalism aligns with liberal individualism by rewarding initiative and respecting private property

liberal disagreement on state intervention (economy)

• classical = mill and smith support minimal state intervention (role of the state should be limited to preventing harm to others, rather than managing economic affairs)

• markets are self-regulating via the ‘invisible hand’

• moderns = keynesian intervention

• keynes argues markets are unstable so state intervention is needed to prevent mass unemployment

• rawls accepts markets but insists they serve justice

• modern liberals see intervention not as anti-capitalist, but as necessary to preserve capitalism’s legitimacy and fairness

liberal agreement on equality and justice (economy)

• equality of opportunity and the right to private property

• locke: ‘every man has a property in his person’

• wollstonecraft and friedan argued women must have equal access to economic opportunity

liberal disagreement on equality and justice (economy)

• classicals = accept inequality of outcome as a fairer reward for effort

• mill argues forced equality would suppress individuality and excellence

• locke opposes redistribution as it violates property rights and individual liberty

• moderns = justify redistribution through progressive taxation, welfare and public services

• rawls’ veil of ignorance suggests rational individuals would support redistribution if unaware of their social position

• redistribution is defended by modern liberals as enhancing freedom rather than restricting it

liberal agreement on freedom (economy)

• economic freedom is essential to individual autonomy, as control over one’s labour, property and economic choices underpins personal independence

• locke argues property is an extension of self

• economic freedom protects individuals from dependence on the state and preserves liberal individualism by allowing rational agents to make choices about work, consumption and lifestyle

liberal disagreement on freedom (economy)

• classicals = negative freedom (absence of state interference) supports minimal regulation, low taxation and laissez-faire economics

• mill’s harm principle limits intervention to preventing harm to others

• moderns = positive freedom justifies state intervention, including welfare provisions, regulation and progressive taxation, to enable meaningful economic freedom

• rawls argues that poverty, poor education and insecurity undermine real choice

• modern liberals do not reject capitalism, they simply argue that limited intervention is necessary to make economic freedom genuine rather than merely formal

locke liberalism quotes (2)

• men being…by nature, all free, equal and independent

• every man has a property in his person

mill liberalism quotes (2)

• over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign

• the object of education is not to make them carpenters, but men

wollstonecraft liberalism quotes (3)

• i do not wish women to have power over men; but over themselves

• virtue can only flourish amongst equals

• the mind has no sex

rawls liberalism quotes (2)

• liberty can be restricted only for the sake of liberty itself

• justice is the first virtue of social institutions

friedan liberalism quotes (2)

• equality is not a matter of sameness, but of opportunity

• the problem that has no name