Approaches to Bioethics and ethical concepts

Ethical Concepts

Integrity

Respect

Justice

Non-maleficence

Beneficence

Integrity

The commitment to knowledge

Encourages full commitment to knowledge and understanding as well as the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, weather favourable or unfavourable to an individual's position

Integrity Example

all the results are reported, so patients have the choice of GM treatment or not

Respect

The commitment to consideration

Encourages the recognition of the value of living things, and considers their well-being, beliefs, customs, and culture, and supports their freedom to make choices without harm or exploitation.

Respect Example

when all patients are informed of possibilities of any adverse effects of receiving GM treatment

Justice

The commitments to fairness

Encourages fair consideration of competing claims and ensures that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action

Non-Maleficence

The commitment to minimising harm

Discourages causing harm or when it’s unavoidable, ensuring that the harm is not disproportionate to the benefits from any position or cause of action

Non-Maleficence Example

as long as they remove adverse effects associated with receiving the GM treatment

Beneficence

The commitment to maximizing benefits

Seeks to maximise benefits when taking a particular position or course of action

Beneficence Example

the benefits of the GM stem cell treatment outweighs the adverse effects

Approaches to Bioethics

• Consequence-based approach

• Duty/rule-based approach

• Virtues-based approach

Consequence-based approach

aims to maximise positive outcomes while minimising negative outcomes

• driven by the consideration of the consequences as a result

emphasizes surrounding circumstances, may sometimes allow an individual to break the rules in order to achieve the greater good for the greatest number of people

Duty/Rule-based approach

promotes the responsibility of the agent above all else, and places importance on the duty of each individual

• follows set rules/responsibilities with less regard to consequence that may result

argues an action can’t be justified b/c it provides good consequences, instead some actions must be followed because they are the responsibility of the individual regardless of the result

Virtues-based approach

• people make their decisions based on their moral compass

focuses on a person’s character and moral qualities, guiding them to act in ways a good person would. Actions are judged based on being caring, charitable, or morally good, rather than strictly following rules or outcomes.

Scientific Method

testing experimentally possible explanations for observations, using knowledge and experience. Begin with research question, and develop an aim

hypothesis

an educated prediction for the research question. should reference IV, DV and be testable

Characteristics of a research question

• testable

• specific

• achievable

Independent Variable

the one being tested or manipulated

Dependent variable

the one being measured or observed when the independent variable changes

controlled variables

all of the factors that could vary but must be kept the same for all experimental groups

Case Study

An investigation of an event or problem that involves a real or hypothetical situation to enable plausible recommendations to be made.

Classification and Identification

The arrangement of individuals, phenomena, objects or events into logical, manageable sets, to enable recognition of where new individuals or objects belong in these sets.

Controlled Experiment

An investigation of the impact of an independent variable on a dependent variable, controlling all other variables.

Correlational Study

Observing and recording events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand associations that exist between variables. The IV is not manipulated by the experimenter and some conditions may not be fully controlled.

Fieldwork

A correlational study or controlled experiment set up to observe and interact outside a controlled environment, usually in a selected ecosystem.

Literature Review

The collection and analysis of secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings or viewpoints concerning a particular topic, considering the reliability of sources and methods, used to provide background information on a topic or to identify potential areas of research.

Modelling

The process of using a physical or conceptual model to observe and predict what may happen in a real or theoretical situation.

Product/Process/System Development

Design of an object, process or system to meet a human need.

Simulation

Construction of a representation that approximates the behaviour of a real or theoretical system, such as a drawing, 3D structure or moving structure that can be used to describe systems or make predictions.

Control

Identical in every way to the experimental group, except is not exposed to the variable being tested

It provides a comparison or baseline for the experimental group and ensures that the results observed are due to the effect of the independent variable

Negative Control

a group expected to produce no result because it is not exposed to the IV, ensuring the observed effects are due to the IV

Positive control

a group set to produce a known, expected result, ensuring that the experimental system is working

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or variable being tested.

Uncontrolled variable/extraneous variable

anything that influences the dependent variable other than the independent variable. not kept constant or accounted for throughout the experiment

heat is one

Replication

running your test/experiment multiple times

possible risks

• Sharp objects

• Flammable material

• Hazardous chemicals

• Open flames

• Culturing of microorganisms

minimising possible risks

Wearing PPE like gloves, lab coats, and enclosed footwear

• Using fume hoods and other safety equipment where needed

• Tying back long hair

what influences risks (contextual factors)

The experience of staff and students with the procedure

• The behaviour of the class

Primary data

data you collected yourself

Secondary Data

data used that has been collected by someone else

Raw data

data you record from your measurements and observations

Transformed data

has been processed (averages calculated) and presented

Quantitate Data

data that can be measured using numbers e.g. mass, length, time

Discrete values

usually counting numbers or certain values e.g. number of bubbles

Continuous data

any number within a given range e.g. temperature or height

Qualitative Data

data that can’t be measured but that can be described (non-numerical observations)

categorical data

ordinal: data that can be logically ordered

nominal: data that cannot be ordered into a logical sequence

Accuracy

how close each measured value is to the true or real value of the quantity being measured

Precision

how close each measured value is to the other measured values

Reliability

 describes an experiment, tool, or measurement that produces similar results when repeated and reproduced

to improve reliability:

• include at least 5 increments

• replicate samples

• run multiple trials

Repeatability

the ability to obtain the same results if an experiment is repeated under exactly the same conditions
by the same person

Reproducibility

the ability to obtain the same results if an experiment is repeated under the same conditions of measurement e.g. different ovserved/instrument/time
might be done by a different person

Random Errors

affect the precision of a measurement and are present in all measurements except for measurements involving counting.

unavoidable, unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings.

how can random errors be reduced

• making more or repeated measurements

• calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.

• increasing sample size

• taking multiple data points and averaging them

main reason for random errors

limitations of instruments, environmental factors and slight variations in procedure

Systematic Error

are predictable and causes readings to differ from the true value by a consisten amount or proportion in one direction each time. affect the accuracy of a measurement.

Repeating measurements does not improve accuracy

Systematic errors may be reduced by routinely calibrating equipment, using controls in experiments and comparing values against standards

typical causes of systemic error

observational error, imperfect instrument calibration, faulty experimental design

Outlier

any value outside the general pattern of the data or that lies a long way from other results. reasons for any outlier need to be considered and an explanation offered

Validity

a measurement or experiment that actually tests what it claims to be testing

whether measurements are due to IV and whether results can apply to other samples

Limitations

aspects of an experiment that may lead to alterations or errors in the outcomes or that affect the extent to which outcomes can be applied in the real world

opinion

the personal belief or viewpoint of an individual which typically has not been verified as fact

anecdote

evidence involving a personal account or report of a previous experience that may provide a certain level of support for a position

correlation

when there is a relationship between two variables

causation

when change in one variable leads to reliable change in another

bias

an inclination to favour a particular position or outcome

error

differences between observed values and the true value

method

the steps followed in a scientific investigation

methodology

the strategy or overarching framework followed in a scientific investigation

control group

identical in every way to the experimental group, except is not exposed to the variable being tested

• provides comparison or baseline for experimental group and ensures that results observed are due to the effect of the IV

representative

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population

unbiased

a sample or measurement that is unaffected by a scientists expectations

random sampling

ensures each member of the population is equally likely to be included

systemic sampling

taking samples at regular intervals along an environmental gradient (such as depth, soil type, rainfall, altitude, or temperature).

Stratified Sampling

selects people from the population to ensure subgroups are proportionally represented

judgement sampling

researchers choosing individuals for a sample according to their needs

convenience sampling

taken from a group of individuals who are easy to reach

Personal Error

Mistakes or miscalculations made by the experimenter. Counting incorrectly, rounding to the wrong decimal place, or labelling samples incorrectly are all examples of personal errors.

fix: repeat experiment, make multiple people to take same measurement if relying on human accuracy

uncertainty

the quantification of doubt associated with a measurement. Inherent in the measurement and cannot be eliminated. contributes to random error. e.g. thermometer may be out by certain degree each time

placebo

a substance that has no active ingredients or side effects