Economic Botany Exam 2

What are the four qualities of design used in landscaping?

• Color – we perceive hue, reflected wavelength of light, and color saturation

• Texture – we associate certain visual patterns with tactile sensation

• Line – natural or inducible size or outline

• Form – three-dimensional quality that includes both shape and structure

What are the three major groups of ornamentals?

1. Florist Crops – flowers or foliage for cut arrangements

2. Houseplants – plants grown in containers for indoor decoration

3. Nursery Crops – used for outdoor gardens

What are examples of cut flowers discussed in class that are used as florist crops

tulips are grown for the cut flower industry. Rose

What are bonsai plants?

Bonsai plants are a special type of houseplant that originated in the orient.

Bonsai plants are created by training trees and shrubs to grow in very small containers.

What is a topiary plant?

Topiary was a Roman invention. It involves creative pruning of plants, often shrubs, into shapes.

Considering the history of gardening, which culture: invented true pleasure gardens; incorporated greenbelts into city designs; developed the forerunners of modern public parks; created the first maze; built the first greenhouses?

The Chinese were the first to create true pleasure gardens, and by 190 B.C. they were constructing extensive parks and public gardens.

In Persia, rulers ordered subjects to plant groves of trees that became pleasure gardens and hunting preserves, the forerunners of modern public parks.

Romans excelled at gardening, becoming the most accomplished gardeners of the ancient world. They incorporated greenbelts into city designs. The Romans built the first greenhouses before 500 A.D.

The French developed their own form of gardens in the 12^th century consisting of planted beds. They created the first maze. And, they produced elaborate formal gardens like Versailles. 

What is the symbolic meaning of the following elements in Oriental gardens: gate; water basin; lantern; curved bridge; stepping stones; zig-zagged path?

Gates symbolize passage from the mundane world into richly symbolic world of the garden.

Water basins are for purification as you enter the spiritual world of the garden.

Lanterns are to light your path in the spiritual world.

Curved bridge is to remind one of the difficult path between this life and paradise.

Steeping stones are to control one’s path, pacing and spiritual transition.

Zig-zagged paths are so that the devil can't pursue you, since the devil can only travel in a straight line.

There are four types of nursery crops:

• Turf – non-forage grasses used in laws

• Ground Covers – prostrate, dense-growing plants other than grasses

• Bedding Plants – relatively small, usually annuals used for floral & foliage display

• Trees and Shrubs – constitute important structural features of ornamental plantings

What are the types of nucleic acids and their functions?

Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are nucleic acids. Plants are eukaryotic, and the genetic material or DNA is contained in chromosomes in the nucleus. DNA consists of genes, which code for the production of particular proteins. Includes nucleotides: A, T, G, and C.

What is the chemical structure of proteins, what functions do they serve? What is an enzyme?

Proteins are nitrogen containing molecules that consist of polypeptide chains of amino acids.

Functions of proteins are:

• structure

• movement

• enzymes

• energy storage

Enzymes mediate metabolic reactions. They speed up the rate of a reaction, without being consumed in the process.

What is the chemical structure of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates have a basic chemical formula of (CH₂O)n

We will discuss three types of carbohydrates:

• monosaccharides

• disaccharides

• polysaccharides

What are the monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides discussed and their functions?

Monosaccharides are simple sugars. Examples are glucose and fructose, both are hexose or six-carbon compounds (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Disaccharides consist of two simple sugars bonded through dehydration synthesis.

Polysaccharides consist of many simple sugars bonded through dehydration synthesis.

What are the four types of lipids, their chemical structures and functions?

There are four types of lipids:

• Phospholipids

• Fats and Oils

• Waxes

• Steroids

Phospholipids consist of glycerol, phosphate group, 2 fatty acids.

Phospholipids are components of cell membranes.

Fats and oils are triglycerides consisting of glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

Fats and oils function in energy storage. They are also important for us to absorb fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, & K).

Waxes consist of alcohols and many saturated fatty acids.

Water does not readily move through wax.

Steroids consist of 4 carbon rings with various functional side groups.

Steroids function in synthesis of hormones and vitamins.

How do saturated and unsaturated fats/oils differ?

The difference has to do with bonds between carbons in the fatty acids. If there are any double bonds between carbons, it is unsaturated. With no double bonds, each carbon holds as many hydrogens as possible and is saturated.

How do humans use starch; pectin; gums; waxes; fats/oils?

Starch has thickening properties due to its interaction with water. Starch causes water molecules to not move as freely, which results in the thickening of a liquid. Flour from wheat grain, corn starch, potato starch, and arrowroot are also often used as thickeners in cooking.

Pectin is the polysaccharide that holds adjacent cells together in the plant. We use pectin to form gels in preserves, jellies and jams. The fruit is cooked, which breaks down cell walls and separates the fruit cells. Then we add commercial pectin to gel the fruit back together and create the jelly or jam.

Gums are also polysaccharides. The gum from oat bran has soluble fiber thought to lower cholesterol. One example is gum arabic from wounded trees of Acacia senegal. The tree is native to Africa, and was sent to Arabian ports for shipment to Europe. This is how it got the common name gum arabic.

There are many economically important plant waxes. Jojoba is a liquid wax from the seed of a desert shrub. The wax is similar to sperm whale oil and industrially it is used for many of the same purposes people used sperm whale oil. This helped reduce the hunting and killing of sperm whales.

Palm and coconut produce what we call vegetable fats. Their oils mostly contain saturated fatty acids. This makes them solid at room temperature. Palm oil is used in soaps, candles and baked products. Coconut oil is used in processed foods, soap, shampoo, and suntan lotions.

What are the three categories of secondary plant compounds discussed in class and their functions in the plant body?

• Alkaloids – cocaine, morphine, quinine, caffeine

• Terpenes – citronella, rubber, turpentine, amber

• Phenolics – flavonoids, tannins, lignin

their functions include chemical defense and attracting animals to serve as pollinators and dispersal agents.

What are examples of alkaloids discussed in class and their use by humans?

Alkaloids are distinguished from the other categories of secondary metabolites by containing nitrogen in their chemical structure. There are 12,000 kinds of alkaloids. They serve an antiherbivory function in the plant. All alkaloids are toxic at a high enough dose.

We use alkaloids as poisons, medicines, and psychoactive drugs.

One example of an alkaloid is cocaine produced by the coca plant native to Peru.

What are examples of terpenes discussed and their use by humans?

There are over 25,000 kinds of terpenes. They are hydrocarbons.

In the plant they serve various functions. One function is attracting pollinators and seed dispersers. Carotenoid pigments are terpenes.

Taxol used to treat cancer, citronella used to deter mosquitos and pyrethrum used as an insecticide are all terpenes.

What are examples of elastic latex discussed and their use by humans?

Rubber is a polyterprene latex produced by Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae), a tree native to the Amazon. Rubber latex is rich in hydrocarbons. Today, more than 2/3 of all rubber (synthetic & natural) is used to produce tires.

How are lignin, tannins, and flavonoids used by humans?

In the plant phenolic compounds function in antiherbivory, attracting pollinators and seed dispersers.

Phenolics that impart the flavor of many spices (vanilla, cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, ginger) that humans enjoy, actually serve antiherbivory functions deterring other animals.

There are four kinds of primary organic compounds:

• nucleic acids

• proteins

• carbohydrates

• lipids

Lignin

The phenolic compound lignin found in secondary plant walls provides strength and resistance to microbial attack. We previously discussed lignin as one of the evolutionary adaptations of land plants enabling them to grown large in stature.

Tannins

Tannins are phenolics that add important flavors in tea, wine and some fruits. They are also used in the process of tanning to turn raw animal skins into leather.

Wine is often aged in oak barrels. Tannins in the oak wood impart a distinct flavor to the wine.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are water-soluble pigments found in plant vacuoles. Flavonoids we consume in red wine, grape seed, tea, blueberries, etc. are thought to reduce risk of heart disease by inhibiting platelet formation.

What type of lipid is cholesterol, and what is its function in the human body?

What do LDL and HDL stand for? Which is considered good and which bad, and why?

How can a human’s diet adjust cholesterol levels?

How can a human’s diet adjust triglyceride levels.?

What are omega-3 fatty acids and why is it beneficial to include them in the human diet?

What are the mineral deficiencies discussed that humans may suffer from? What are the deficiency symptoms? What foods can humans consume to avoid deficiencies?

What are the vitamin deficiencies discussed that humans may suffer from? What are the deficiency symptoms? What foods can humans consume to avoid deficiencies?

According to the USDA nutritional recommendations, what percentage of the following primary organic compounds should be consumed in the human diet: carbohydrates, fats/oils, and proteins?

Why is it important to consume a variety of different colored fruits and vegetables?

What is obesity?

What steps should you take to keep foods safe and avoid food poisoning?

How have humans used spices and herbs?

What are the characteristics of the plant family Lamiaceae and what are members of the family that humans use as spices and herbs?

What are the characteristics of the plant family Apiaceae and what are members of the family that humans use as spices and herbs?

Historically how have humans approached using plants to cure ailments? Who are the people and philosophies discussed that played a role in our understanding of medical plants?

What are the plants humans use for herbal supplements discussed in class, their active components and what human ailment have they been used to treat?

What are the plants discussed that have proven medicinal qualities, their active components and what human ailment have they been used to treat?

How do plants defend themselves mechanically?

How do plants defend themselves chemically?

Which plants produce the following chemical compounds and how does the compound act as poisons to humans and other animals: urushiol, mescaline, pyrethrin, ricin, and tubocurarine?

How do the following plants act as poisons to humans and other animals: poison hemlock, oleander, yew, mountain laurel, castor bean, dumbcane, white snakeroot, and tobacco?

What are the four most widely used psychoactive substances used by humans?

What psychoactive compounds discussed are classified as the following based on their psychological effect: stimulants, depressants, opioids, and psychedelics?

How do the following psychoactive substances act on the CNS and or PNS: cocaine, nictotine?

What are examples of opioids, what plant produces the active compounds, how have humans used opioids, what is the opioid crisis?

What is the active compound in the following psychoactive plants and how have humans used them for their psychoactive properties: betel nut, peyote, cannabis, belladona, mandrake, and jimsonweed?

What causes and allergic reaction?

What plants discussed produce hay fever and cedar fever?

What plants discussed cause contact dermatitis?

What is latex allergy?

What are examples of foods discussed that are poisonous to humans and which are poisonous to pets?

What type of secondary plant compound is caffeine and how does it act as a stimulant to humans?

Which plants discussed contain phenylethylamine and theobromine?

Of the stimulating beverages discussed (cocoa, kola, tea, coffee, mate, guarana, yaupon tea) what is the native region of each plant, how have the beverages been used by humans, what are the compounds that act as stimulants and what health benefits, if any, does each have?

What is alcoholic fermentation?

How does alcohol (ethanol) influence the following human neural receptors: dopamine, endorphin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GBA), glutamates, and the specific glutamate NMDA (N-Methyl-D-aspartate)?

How do red and white wines differ?

Which plants is used to make each of the following alcoholic beverages: beer, chicha, sake, wine, mead, and hard cider?

What is the process of distillation?

What does the proof of a distilled spirit signifiy?

Which plants are used to make each of the following distilled alcoholic beverages: whiskey, scotch, bourbon, gin, vodka, rum, tequila, mascal, and absinthe?