Anatomy and Physiology II - Chapter 10, 11, and 12/Exam 1

This goes over the Endocrine System, Blood, and the Cardiovascular System. The specific course is Anatomy and Physiology II (BIOL-2402)

exocrine glands

• non-hormonal substances

• ducts secrete to the surface membrane

• ex: sweat, saliva

eccrine glands

sweat glands that cool you down

apocrine glands

sweat glands that release a scent

endocrine glands

• hormones

• no ducts/ductless

• ex: pituitary, thyroid

steroid

lipid, lipid-soluble

All Espresso Testers Correspond

• aldosterone

• estrogen

• testosterone

• cortisol

steroid mechanism

• diffuses through membrane, binds to a receptor inside

• enters the nucleus

• binds to a DNA region for transcription

• mRNA directs protein synthesis

nonsteroid

protein/amino acids/peptides, water soluble

GIA doesn’t use steroids

• glucagon

• insulin

• ADH

nonsteroid mechanism

• binds to receptor embedded in the membrane

• receptor activates G protein

• activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP

• cAMP activates protein kinases

negative feedback

reduces change for homeostasis

• ex: blood sugar, temperature, electrolytes

positive feedback

increases change, unusual

• oxytocin and uterine contractions for childbirth, blood clotting

pineal gland

center of the brain, above the thalamus

sleep and wake cycle

pineal gland hormone

melatonin

• maintains circadian rhythm (sleep/wake in 24 hour cycle)

hypothalamus

below thalamus

links nervous and endocrine (body temp, hunger and thirst, mood, etc)

pituitary gland

near sphenoid and below hypothalamus

master gland

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormones

FLAT PG

• FSH

• LH

• ACTH

• TSH

• PRL

• growth hormone

FSH stands for

follicle-stimulating hormone

follicle-stimulating hormone

FSH

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• stimulates

  • ovary follicles

  • production of sperm cells in the testes

LH stands for

luteinizing-hormone

luteinizing-hormone

LH

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• triggers

  • ovulation in females

  • testosterone production in males

ACTH stands for

adrenocorticotropin

adrenocorticotropin

ACTH

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• stimulates the adrenal cortex

TSH stands for

thyroid-stimulation hormone

thyroid-stimulation hormone

TSH

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• stimulates the thyroid

PRL stands for

prolactin

prolactin

PRL

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• sustains milk production post-birth

growth hormone

pituitary gland anterior lobe hormone

• promotes

  • long bone growth

  • increased cell uptake of amino acids

pituitary dwarfism

too little growth hormone as a child

pituitary giantism

too much growth hormone as a child

acromegaly

too much growth hormone as an adult

pituitary gland posterior lobe hormones

OA

• OT

• ADH

OT stands for

oxytocin

oxytocin

OT

pituitary gland posterior lobe hormone

• causes uterine contraction for birth through positive feedback

ADH stands for

antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin

antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin

ADH

pituitary gland posterior lobe hormone

• increases water reabsorption in the kidneys

  • can cause blood pressure to rise

diabetes insipidus/pituitary diabetes

• ADH deficiency

• increases urination → polyuria

thyroid gland

in throat, butterfly shape

regulates metabolism and decreases calcium levels

thyroid gland hormones

CT34

• T₃

• T₄

• calcitonin

T₃ stands for

triiodothyronine

T₄ stands for

thryoxine

triiodothyronine and thyroxine

T3 and T4

regulates metabolism in the thyroid gland

calcitonin

released with hypercalcemia

• stimulates osteoblasts

osteoblasts

builds bone

• lowers calcium levels

goiters

enlarged thyroid gland

• endemic vs toxic

endemic goiters

caused by iodine deficiency in the population, usually due to lack of access to saltwater

• solved by iodized salt

toxic goiters

caused by a disease state in a person or chemical exposure like sick building syndrome

cretinism

low T₃ and T₄ at birth detected by heal stick

• hormones used to supplement the slow thyroid

hyperthyroidism

overactive thyroid

• run hot

• hard to gain weight

• eyes bulge out

hypothyroidism

underactive thyroid

• run cold

• easy to gain weight

• shorter

parathyroid gland

behind and embedded in thyroid gland, pea-sized

increases calcium levels

parathyroid gland hormone

PTH

parathyroid hormone

PTH

used to raise calcium levels

• stimulates osteoclasts

• stimulates kidney tubules

  • reabsorb Ca⁺⁺

  • secrete PO₄^-3

• activates vitamin D

osteoclasts

break down bone

• raise calcium levels

Ca⁺⁺ is a

calcium ion

PO₄^-3

phosphate ion

vitamin D

absorbs Ca

hyperparathyroidism

overactive parathyroid

• excessive PTH and osteoclast activity

• calcium levels rise

• bone strength and growth fall

hypoparathyroidism

underactive parathyroid

• too little PTH and osteoclast activity

• calcium levels fall

• bone strength and growth rise

thymus gland

over the heart

large in young mammals, shrinks after puberty

helps with immune system

thymus gland hormone

thymosin

• stimulates t-cell/t-lymphocyte maturation

adrenal gland

on top of kidneys (renal)

fight or flight response in the sympathetic nervous system

adrenal cortex (outer layer) hormones

All Androids Correspond

• aldosterone

• androgens

• cortisol

aldosterone

adrenal cortex (outer layer) hormone

sodium and potassium regulation

• kidney tubules

  • reabsorption of Na⁺

  • secretion of K⁺

androgens

adrenal cortex (outer layer) hormone

male sex hormones

• supplements gonads

• can convert to estrogen

cortisol

adrenal cortex (outer layer) hormone

released under high stress

• reduces inflammation and immune system

• stimulates gluconeogenesis

  • increases body fat deposition in abdominal area

gluconeogenesis

turning non-carbs like fats and proteins into new sugar

adrenal medulla (inner layer) hormones

• epinephrine

• norepinephrine

epinephrine is also known as

adrenaline

norepinephrine is also known as

noradrenaline

epinephrine and norepinephrine

enhances the sympathetic nervous system fight or flight response

cushing’s syndrome

overactive adrenal

• extreme weight gain

• sodium retention

addison’s disease

underactive adrenal

• sleek body

• lips/fingers have tan/dark pigmentation

acetylcholine

in parasympathetic nervous system for rest and digest functions

pancreas

under stomach

helps regulates blood sugar and digestion

pancreas features

• islets of langerhans

• acinar cells

islets of langerhans

endocrine part of the pancreas

• alpha cells

• beta cells

alpha cells

stimulated during hypoglycemia to secrete glucagon

glucagon

hormone that raises blood sugar levels

• stimulates the liver to break down glycogen

glycogen

polysaccharide made by the liver that stores glucose

beta cells

stimulated during hyperglycemia to secrete insulin

insulin

hormone that reduces blood sugar levels

• signals cells to absorb glucose for energy

• stimulates liver to absorb glucose for glycogen

acinar cells

exocrine part of the pancreas

• release digestive enzymes through a duct running through the small intestine

type 1 diabetes

• juvenile, rare type of diabetes caused by a stressed immune system

• insulin dependent

• autoimmune disease: body attacks pancreas beta cells → no insulin

type 2 diabetes

• adult, more common diabetes caused by certain lifestyles/diets

• initially not insulin dependent

• insulin resistance: cells ignore insulin esp in adipose tissue

complications of diabetes

• damage to blood vessels, nerves, and kidneys

  • kidney damage→ dialysis

• diabetic retinopathy → blindness

• risk of heart disease, gas gangrene increases

  • gas gangrene → amputation (1/4)

• poor wound healing and circulation

• loss of nerve sensation

ovary

abdominal, female gonad

ovary hormones

• estrogen

• progesterone

estrogen

causes secondary sexual characteristics during female puberty

• breast development, wider hips/thighs, axillary and groin hair

progesterone

• from corpus luteum

  • remaining follicle cells in the ovary post ovulation

• maintains pregnancy

testes

abdominal → pelvic, male gonad

testes hormone

testosterone

testosterone

causes secondary sexual characteristics during male puberty

• broader shoulders, muscle tissue increases, deepening voice, facial + axillary + groin hair

stress

• physical: lack of sleep, excess caffeine/alcohol, pain, smoking

• psychological: death of a loved one, divorce, losing a job, exams, arguments, pandemics

effect of stress on body

• increased heart rate → increased blood pressure

• increased blood sugar → increased risk of type 2 diabetes

• decreased t-cells and interferon → decreased immune function

hormones during stress

• blood sugar increase → insulin increase

• epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline increase from sympathetic nervous system

• cortisol increase → immune system suppression and body fat deposition in abdomen increase → central obesity/apple body shape

stress alleviation

• 6-8 hours of sleep

• healthy meals

• limit caffeine and alcohol

• don’t smoke

• exercise

• time management

• slow breathing

• hobbies

• nature

• social network

• aromatherapy

• volunteering

• reframing

• gratitude

blood

connective tissue

• plasma

• formed elements

hematocrit

taking a blood sample and putting it into a centrifuge to separate its contents and see blood volume

average blood volume in men

5.5 liters

average blood volume in women

5 liters

plasma

non-living, liquid part of blood

• 55% of blood