forensics

Douglas et al

stages of top down approach: profiling inputs, decision making models, crime assessment (disorganised/organised), profile, investigation, apprehension.

Goodwin

organised/ disorganised on a continuum/ spectrum.

Canter et al

analysis of 100 US murderers tested for 39 characteristics that matched the organised killer but disorganised was rare.

Meketa

applied this to burglary a rise of 85% solved cases in 3 US states.

Canter & Larkin

circle theory around the offender’s base and can lead to clues about their schemas of employment, transport, and interests.

John Duffy

the railway murders real life application 24 sexual acts Duffy moved from 1500th place to a priority suspect.

Paul Britton

Rachel Nickell wrongly convicted and took 14 years until Robert was found guilty of killing Nickell.

Copson

surveyed 48 police cases and the police said it was useful in 83% of cases only 3% were successful.

Lombroso

criminals were born and were primitive, evolutionary throwbacks.

Goring

compared 3000 English criminals and 3000 English non criminals and could not find any physical differences only low IQ. Kurtzberg

Kurtzberg

finding USA offenders given cosmetic surgery tended to improve on release more so than those who didn’t.

Christiansen

studied 3500 twins in Denmark, found a 35% concordance (degree of similarity for the same trait) rate for MZ twins and 13% for DZ.

Tiihonen

candidate genes MAOA regulates serotonin (low levels) linked to aggressive behaviour. CD13 linked to substance abuse and ADHD.

Keysers

found that only when offenders were asked to empathise did their mirror neurons activate; have a ‘switch’ unlike the normal brain. Joseph

Joseph

twins also share similar environments hard to disentangle nature and nurture.

Farrington

other factors could play a role like those with high APD score had childhood trauma, neglect and could have frontal lobe reduction in activity.

Eysenck & Eysenck

high on extraversion and neurotic personality, high on psychotic can lead to aggression. compared 2017 male prisoners to 2400 male controls of all age groups and scored higher on E and N than the controls.

Küssner

inconsistent with EEG measures of E and I for cortical arousal.

Bartol & Holanchok

studied African-American offenders divided into 6 groups based on criminal history all 6 were less extraverted than the control.

Kohlberg

levels of moral reasoning suggested criminal’s levels are lower than non-criminals. Heinz dilemma (stealing expensive drug)

Ward & Keegan

interviewed child molesters their distortive beliefs: sexual contact is educational, the child consented, and they are provocative.

Palmer & Hollin

compared 332 non offenders with 126 convicted and found offenders to be less mature in moral reasoning.

Sutherland

learning the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives from those around them.

Akers

theory development learnt through operant conditioning of imitation and reinforcement (money, status, or approval)

David Farrington

Cambridge study found offending behaviour heavily associated with delinquent peers and criminal family members.

Blackburn

inadequate superego trauma (phallic) stage so cannot identify.

Bowlby

maternal deprivation 44 juvenile thieves 12/14 affectionless psychopaths had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers.

Lewis

analysed data from 500 young people and found maternal deprivation was a poor prediction for future offending. Not causal relationship other factors like poverty.

In 2025, the ministry of justice declared 411 UK deaths. In 2016 this was 119. Most vulnerable are young single men during the first 24hrs.

Shirley

claims that offenders who take part in college programs are 43% less likely to reoffend.

Hobbs & Holt

introduced token economy to groups of behaviour in young offenders and they observed a significant increase in positive behaviour.

Blackburn

has little rehabilitation value; any quick positive changes is lost when they leave.

Novaco

cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which occurs before and aggressive act. Form on CBT in three stages: cognitive preparation, skills acquisition, and application practice.

Keen et al

studied young offenders between 17

Blackburn

very little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term as it relies on roleplay. Shapland

Shapland

7-year research project gathering 85% of survivors who were satisfied with the process and 78% would recommend it to others. Only 2% said it made them feel worse.

Strang et al

meta-analysis on recidivism rates and found a significant difference due to face-to-face justice schemes, often for violent crimes against property.