Barrons Flashcard Set

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of scores that is normally distributed (a few scores at the low end and high end of the distribution, with. most of the scores being clustered around the mean)

Descriptive Statistics

Ways of describing a set of data and measures of central tendency are a common descriptive statistic (central tendency can include mean, median, and mode)

Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective

Refers to the idea that some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival and that these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation

Heritability

The percentage of variation between people that can be attributed to genetic factors and can range from 0 to 1

Informed Consent

According to APA ethical guidelines, participants must be given sufficient information about the nature of the research so they can decide whether to participate. It is obtained by asking participants to sign an informed consent letter, and parents can sign this for their children. They must inform the participant about some elements, as long as the deception is not so extensive that participants do not have the information they need to decide whether or not to participate.

Adoption studies

These are used to investigate questions about the relative influence of environmental factors (nurture) and genetic factors (nature)

Effect Size

A statistic that hsows ho wmuch "change" happens usually as a comparison between an expeiremntal group and a control group.

Small: 0-0.4 or 0.5

Medium: 0.4 or 0.5 - 0.8

Large: 0.8 and above

Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning (learning), and they strictly look at observable behaviors and the reactions organisms get in response to specific behaviors.

Population

The group from which a sample is selected and it includes anyone or anything that could possibly be selected in the sample.

Biological Perspective

Known as "biopsychology" or "neuroscience," it explains human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Belives that human cognition and reactions might be cause dby effects of our genes, hromones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or a combination of all three.

Measures of Variability

A type of descriptive statistical measure that attempts ot depict the diversity of the distribution.

Examples: range, variance, and standard deviation

Case Study

A research method used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants and cannot be generalized to a larger population

Confounding Variable

Any difference between the experimental and control conditions (such as time of day), except for the independent variable, might affect the dependent variable. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.

Experimental Bias

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat memebrs of the xperiemntal and co ntrol group sdiffferently to increase the change of confirming their hypothesis. Using double blind procedure can help eliminate this.

Directionality Problem / Third Variable Problem

A correlational study establishes a relationship between two variables, but then what happens to one variable if the other changes meaning it cannot be established because...

- We don't know if the change in one variable CAUSES the change in another variable

- Directionality: Variable 2 might change when variable 1 changes, but we don't know if variable 2 causes the change in variable 1 or vice versa

- The third variable problem: There might be a third variable that causes the relationship between 1 and 2.

Placebo

Researchers often give the real independent variable to the experimental group and a fake independent variable that they know does not have any impact to the control group.

APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research

- Coercion

- informed consent

- anonymity/confidentiality

- lack of risk

- Debriefing procedures

Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events

APA Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research

- Have a clear scientific purpose

- Care for and house animals in a humane way

- Acquire animal subjects legally

- Design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible

Random Assignment

The process by which participants are put into either an experimental group or a control group. Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group and it limits the effects of confounding variables based on differences between people. Using this method diminishes the chance that participants in two groups differ in a meaningful way.

Statistical Significance

Scientists have decided that 5 percent (0.05) is the cutoff for it. This means that in an experimental result related to it, the chance that a result occurred by chance is 5% or less.

Standard Deviation

A statistical measure of variability in a set of data. It is a set of scores that refers to how far, on average, each score deviates from the mean.

Large = scores are spread farther from the mean

Small = scores are more clustered around the mean

Hypothesis

A statement that expresses a relationship between 2 variables. A change in IV will produce a change in DV.

Bimodal Distribution

A set of scores with more than one mode (the most frequently occurring score) and graphs will show 2 peaks.

Sampling

The individuals on whom the research is conducted are called participants or subjects and the process by which they are selected is called ______.

Sample Bias

Also called selection bias. It occurs if a group of participants does not represent the population well, and random sampling ensures they can represent the population well.

Double-Blind Procedure

Method followed such that neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of who is in the experimental group or the control group while the experiment is going on. It controls other experimenter bias and participant bias.

Random Sampling (Selection)

A method of selecting a sample from a population. Every member has an equal chance of being selected. It allows them to generalize results to a larger population.

Longitudinal research

Developmental research that takes place over a long period of time. Instead of sampling from various age groups, a ___________ examines on group of participants over time. It is known for precisely measuring the effects of development on a specific group, though it can be time-consuming, and results can take a long time to develop.

Replication

Repeating a psychological study in order to confirm the results of a previous study. It is an essential step in the scientific method.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method that involves observing participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them. It is meant to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants' behavior, but it CANNOT establish cause and effect relationships.

Percentile Rank

A statistic that is often used in the context of test scores.

Example: If you get a test score and your _____ is 89 you outscored 89% of the studens who took that same test.

Qualitative Research

These research studies gather data in the form of quotations/words from participants rather than trying to "quantify" their variables. They use other techniques like thematic analysis, to analyze their data.

Quantitative Research

These research studies involve measuring psychological variables in terms of numbers or scores. Researchers use descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze their data.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency of people upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think they knew it all along.

"Thats obvious! Everyone already knew that! I knew it."

Participant Bias (Response Bias)

The tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways based on their perception of an experiment.

Single blind and double blind procedure control this from happening.

Meta-Analysis

A research technique researchers use ot create an overall summary of what research studies say about a specific topic. Researchers use selection criteria to find all the relevant studies about a certain topic and then examine the outcomes of these relevant studies and combine the results to make an overall answer about the topic.

Cross-Sectional Research

Developmental research that uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship between 2 variables. It does NOT imply causation. The coefficient ranges from -1 to +1.

Social Cultural (Sociocultural) Perspective

Psychologists for this look at how our thoughts and behavior vary from people living in other cultures and emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act.

Operational Definitions

An explanation of how variables are measured. The two variables need to be operationally defined in the hypothesis.

Experiment

The only research method that can show a causal relationship.

Allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.

It MUST compare 2 groups: experimental group and control group that differ based on IV.

Convenience Sample

Existing groups that researchers have access to. They recruit them for their studies based on convenience instead of at random, which may make it so it does not properly represent a population.

Representation

A process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria, such as age or race.

Survey Method

Involves asking people to fill out surveys

Often used to gather opinions or attitudes and for correlational research.

Validity

A test is. valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure and is reliable.

Predictive Validity

Do the scores on the test measure the relevant future performance or other outcomes?

Construct Validity

Does the test truly measure the concept or goal, or idea that it tries to measure?

Sleep onset

The stage between wakefulness and sleep. We might experience mild hallucinations, such as falling or rising, during this stage.

Sleep Stage 1 & 2

NREM - Stages in which the brain produces theta waves, which are relatively high frequency and low amplitude

(Delta Sleep) Sleep Stage 3 & 4

NREM - Stages where the body's chemical supplies are replenished. The slower the wave, the deeper the sleep and the less awareness. People who are deprived of this feel physically tired.

REM Sleep

Brain waves appear as active and itnnese as they do when we re awawke.

Dreams occur, and sleep deprivation interferes with memory.

The more stress experienced during the day, the longer this stage lasts.

REM Rebound

After a period of sleep deprivation, when our sleep cycles are disrupted (specifically the amount spent in REM), this rebound effect can occur:

We will spend more time in REM sleep when we sleep the next night. It can also occur during times of intense stress.

Spinal Cord

A bundle of nerves that run thorugh the center of the spine

Responsible for transmitting information from the rest of the body to the brain.

Reticular Formation (Reticular Activating System)

A netlike collection of cells throughout the endbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus attention. If it does not function, we fall into a deep coma.

Sleep disorders

- Insomnia

- Narcolepsy

- Sleep Apnea

- Night Terrors

- Somnambulism

Glial Cells

Brain cells that surround and support brain neurons.

It does not fire as neurons do, and instead supports the brain neurons.

Glutamate

One of the most important excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain increases the likelihood that other neurons will fire.

Role: helps with learning and memory systems.

Hallucinogens (also called Psychedelics)

Causes changes in perception of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasies.

It can cause reverse tolerance.

Examples: LSD, peyote, mushrooms, and marijuana.

Pituitary Gland

A gland at the base of the brain that controls several hormones including growth hormones, involved in physical changes during puberty.

Role: involved in controlling hunger through interacitons w/ hypothalamus and the hormones ghrelin and leptin.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and the rest of the body, and induce an altered state of consciousness.

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine

Role: associated with motor movement

Lack of this is associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Amygdala

A small area of the brain within the limbic system.

Role: vital to our experiences of basic emotions like fear and aggression.

Autonomic Nervous System

Roles:

- Controls the AUTOMATIC functions of the human body, like the heart, lungs, etc.

- Controls responses to stress, like fight or flight

Divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic.

Cerebellum

Located at the bottom rear of the brain

Role: coordinates habitual muscle movements

Example: playing an instrument or tracking a target

Dependence and Withdrawal

- Occurs as a consequence of drug use

- Symptoms vary from drug to drug

- Dependence on psychoactive drugs can be psychological, physical, or both.

- Psychologically dependent individuals feel an intense desire for the drug and are convinced that they need it in order to perform or feel a specific way

- Physically dependent individuals have tolerance for the drug and experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need it to avoid those symptoms.

Depressants

Slows down body processes like reactions and judgment by slowing down brain processes (CNS processes)

Euphoria accompanies the depressing effects of them, and continued use leads to tolerance and withdrawal.

Examples: alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, or anti-anxiety drugs

Central Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

All the nerves are housed within bone (skull and vertebrae)

Cerebral Cortex

The wrinkled surface of the brain has a thin layer of densely packed neurons. It covers the rest of the brain,

Corpus Callosum

The nerve bundle that connects the two brain hemispheres

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter associated with pain control.

Also involved in drug addiction.

GABA

A neurotransmitter in the brain that slows down neural activity (inhibitory).

It is an important part of the brain's system of slowing down and calming our NS

Tolerance

The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it's being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug.

This change produces _____, a need for more of the same drug to acheive the same effect.

Wernicke's Area

Interprets written and spoken speech.

Damage to this area affects the ability to understand language.

Thalamus

Located on top of the brain stem

Role:

Responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain

Stimulants

- Speed up body processes, including ANS functions like heart rate and respiration rate.

- Produces tolerance, withdrawal effects, heart problems, etc.

Examples: Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Mobilizes the body to respond to stress ~ "Alert System."

Part of the NS that carries messages ot teh control systems of the organs, glands, and muscles that direct the body's response to stress.

- Accelerates...heart rate, BP, etc

- Conserves resources needed for quick response by slowing down functions like digestion.

Temporal Lobes

Processes sound sensed by the ears.

Additional info:

Sound waves are processed by the ears --> turned into neural impulses --> interpreted by the auditory cortices

Pupil

Iris is the muscle that controls this and dilates it to let more light in and makes it smaller to let less light in.

Similar to the shutter of a camera

Retina

As the light passes through, the image is flipped upside down and projected onto it.

Additional info:

Special neurons in this are activated by light and send impulses along the optic nerve to the occipital lobe.

Rods and Cones

Special neurons in the retina that are activated by light.

Rods

Respond to black and white and motion

Cones

Activated by color

Absolute Threshold

The minimal amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time

Action Potential

An electric charge that spreads down the length of a neuron after the threshold is achieved.

Travels like a bullet from a gun.

Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory

The theory that proposes dreams are nothing more than the brain's interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.

Adrenaline

A hormone released by the adrenal glands.

One of the elements that helps with getting ready for fight or flight. It is closely related to norepinephrine.

Role: controls important bodily processes like BP, breathing, and heart rate.

Affrent Neurons (or Sensory Neurons)

Neurons that take information from the senses to the brain.

Role: responsible for transmitting neural impulses from the rest of the body to the brain

All-or-None Principle

The neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Aphasia

Inability to speak or comprehend language because of issues in the brain caused by things like a stroke.

Association Area

Any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements.

Axon

Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body and transmits electrical impulses.

Bipolar Cells and Ganglion Cells

- Makes up different layers in the retina

Rods and cones send signals to the next layer of cells in the retina: _________

↓

______ sends signals to the next layer of cells in the retina

↓

______ sends signals to the brain through optic nerve

Blind Spot

The spot on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the retina, and there are no rods or cones. We cannot detect objects here, but the brain and movement of our eyes compensate for this.

Brain Lateralization

(or Hemispheric Specialization)

Specialization of function in each brain hemisphere.

The right hemisphere may be more active during spatial and creative tasks.

The left hemisphere may be more active during spoken language, logic, and sequential tasks.

Brain Plasticity

Parts of the brain can adapt to perform other functions if needed.

Additional information:

Dendrites might be able to make new connections in another part of the brain that would be able to take over functions that are usually performed by the damaged part.

Broca's Area

Located in the frontal lobe

Role: responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech.

- Damage to this area leaves us unable to make the movements needed for speech.

Cell Body

(Soma)

Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.