EWP3 - The Reformation (Pre-1555)

What order of friar is Luther?

An Augustinian

Luther on Salvation

Obsessed with it, like most medieval people. Sacraments and Good Works are traditionally important in this process. He reads Romans 1:17 which he interprets as God saying only to live by faith, similar to Erasmus, and runs with the idea.

Arguments against Indulgences

Tetzel comes to sell indulgences in Wittenberg. Sparks debate over if the Pope has authority to do so in Germany. Luther argues vehemently against indulgences, while Erasmus is much more subtle. The political dimension (independence of the HRE from Rome) is central.

The Anti-Christ

Woodcuts are used to portray the Pope as an Anti-Christ figure, weaponized by Luther who leans into the idea. Comes up again in the Peasant's War, with the peasant's simultaneously throwing off the yoke of the Anti-Christ and their feudal lords.

Priesthood of All Believers

Important Protestant idea that the clergy shouldn't receive special privileges or have a "superior" relationship with God. Callback to Jan Hus and his utraquist ways.

2 Reasons why Charles V Can't stop the Lutherans

Firstly, there are divisions within the Catholic ranks and thus on how to deal with the issue. Secondly, the Ottomans are making large advances in Eastern Europe which the Catholic forces are concentrated on dealing with.

1555 Peace of Augsburg

Truce between Charles V and his Lutheran subjects. Allows each HRE Prince to pick between a standardized form of Catholicism or Lutheranism, but nothing else.

Zwingli's Theology

Concerned mainly with spiritual morality and health. Extremely against idols and art in faith (Luther is less bothered). Doesn't believe in transubstantiation, rather that the body and blood are a memorial (major disagreement with Luther). Want's church and state tied together much more.

Anabaptists

Originate in Zwingli's Zurich, main idea is that they reject infant baptism. Very literal interpretation of the Gospel. Hate the "dirtiness" of politics. Founded a dissenting city in Munster for a time.

Calvin

Trained as a lawyer (never a Catholic priest), he gains control of Geneva after returning to the city in 1541. Publishes his, "Institutes" in the late 1550s to be translated and shared around Europe.

Calvinism Theology

Predestination is the major theses here, giving Calvinists their unique Weberian work ethic. Calvinists are not scared of the politics (like Anabaptists), and integrated Church and state more than usual.

How did Calvin change as he aged?

Kept his humanist attitude, but lessened his passion for pagan writers (Aristotle, St. Augustine)

What suggests Calvin wasn't very radical?

Calvin hadn't broken with the Roman Catholic Church by 1553, and struggled to actually break that bond with the papacy.

Protestant Similarities

(1) Shift away from the "extras" of Catholicism and back to the word of God. (2) Authority is placed in the Bible, not Church leadership (Pope). (3) Faith, not good works is what makes a good Christian (sola fide is the guiding principle). (4) Opposition to the Catholic Church.

Where are Luther and Calvin read?

Luther, with his very Germanic way of speaking, is read almost solely inside Germany. Meanwhile, Calvin is being translated, printed, and exported around the Continent.

Print vs Preaching in Protestantism

All Protestants believed that conversion only comes from preaching, hearing the word of God spoken, not from reading it. This serves to democratize Protestantism down the social pyramid to the illiterate.

Scribner on the "Middle out" Thesis

Scribner agues the Reformation isn't from the "top down" or "bottom up", but the soul of it is from the middle of the social pyramid. Thus, the reformers (Luther, Calvin), are generally

von Ranke and Preserved Smith (1890s - 1930s)

Presents the Reformation as a theological revolution driven by great individuals, especially Martin Luther, who is portrayed as a heroic liberator. The focus is on doctrinal disputes and major theologians, with history shaped by ideas and personalities. Interpretations were highly partisan, with sharp divisions between Catholic and Protestant historians. (Heroic Narratives)

Engels and Tawney (1930s - 1960s)

Argue that the Reformation was primarily the result of socioeconomic forces (Marxist) rather than theology. They emphasize class tensions, economic grievances, and long-term structural change. The success or failure of the Reformation in different regions is explained through material conditions and political dynamics, particularly the relationship between princes and the Church. (Marxist)

Ozment and Oberman (1960s - 1970s)

Focuses on detailed archival studies of specific cities, showing that the Reformation spread through urban networks like guilds and councils. It presents the Reformation as a collection of local movements rather than a single unified event, and reinterprets figures like Luther as rooted in medieval, not modern, thought. (Urban vs Rural)

Schilling and Reinhard (1970s - 1980s)

Confessionalization theory argues that the Reformation was used by emerging states to consolidate power and build more disciplined, centralized societies. Religion became a tool of governance, with rulers enforcing uniform belief (e.g. cuius regio, eius religio) to create social order and cohesion. (Confessionalization Thesis)

Zemon Davis and Scribner (1980s - 1990s)

This perspective emphasizes a "bottom-up" view, focusing on the beliefs and practices of ordinary people. It highlights the uneven and locally adapted nature of the Reformation and uses anthropological approaches to understand popular culture, reducing the emphasis on elites and official theology. (Popular Religion)

MacCulloch, Eire, and Wiesner-Hanks (1990s-2000s)

Historians in this phase argue that there was no single Reformation but multiple competing movements, including Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anabaptist reformations. Greater attention is given to diversity, including gender roles, family structures, dissenting groups, and the role of print and communication. (Multiple Reformations)

Gregory and Roper (Present)

Recent historiography sees the Reformation as part of early modern globalisation, with less clear boundaries in time and space. It extends beyond Europe to places like the Americas and reconnects the movement to broader global trends, while also re-emphasising the importance of religious ideas and meaning. (Global Reformation)