Final Exam Review - Anatomy and Physiology

Flashcards covering various body systems including nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, immune, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive systems based on final exam review notes.

Corpus callosum

The largest bundle of white matter in the brain, containing over $200$ million axons that act as a bridge connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Cerebellum

Manages balance and smooth coordinated movement; and coordinates with the parietal lobe via sensory input/spatial awareness.

Interneurons

The most abundant neurons in the CNS, functioning primarily as a middleman that process, intergrate, and relay signals between sensory and motor neurons.

Ganglia

Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system that act as relay stations, connecting different parts of the nervous system.

Steps of Action Potential

1. Resting Potential (polarized state), 2. Stimulus received (threshold reached), 3. Depolarization ($Na^+$ enters), 4. Action potential propagation (signal travels), 5. Repolarization ($K^+$ exits), 6. Refractory period (reset), 7. Synaptic transmission (signal transfer).

Neurotransmitters

Endogenous chemical messengers that allow neurons to communicate with each other, muscles, or glands, carrying signals across the synaptic cleft to transmit information for functions like movement and breathing.

Broca's Area

Located in the frontal lobe; has motor component of speech and lets you say words.

Hypothalamus

Regulates body temp., hunger, thirst, sleep, hormones and helps maintain the body's internal balance.

Medulla Oblongata

Controls involuntary activities such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, and digestion.

Spinal Cord Divisions

Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal.

Erythropoietin

Hormone that stimulates red blood cell production.

Fibrin

A protein involved in blood clotting.

Agglutination

The clumping of cells/particles - usually triggered by an antigen-antibody reaction, common in red blood cells, foreign particles, or bacteria.

Leukocytes

White blood cells that defend the body against infection, pathogens, toxins, and abnormal cells (Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinocytes, Basophils).

Hemostasis Promotion

The use of sterile gauze and applying pressure to protect a wound, reduce bleeding, and promote clot formation.

Coagulation

The process where blood changes from a liquid to a gel-like, solid mass using fibrin strands to create a plug or scab.

Liver Function in Clotting

The synthesis and secretion of blood coagulation factors.

Blood Type A

Contains A antigens; can donate to Type A and Type AB, and can receive from Type O and Type A.

Blood Type B

Contains B antigens; can donate to Type B and Type AB, and can receive from Type O and Type A.

Blood Type AB

Contains both A and B antigens; can donate to AB but can receive from Type A, B, AB, and O.

Blood Type O

Contains no antigens; can donate to Type A, B, AB, and O, but can only receive from Type O.

Hemolysis

The destruction of red blood cells through lysis, which is the breakdown of a cell membrane.

RhoGAM

A serum that actively binds to fetal $Rh$ positive RBC that enter an $Rh$ negative mothers blood stream, preventing an immune response.

Systemic circulation

The part of the cardiovascular system carrying oxygenated blood, nutrients, and hormones from the left ventricle to all body tissues, returning deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.

Coronary arteries

Provide the myocardium with oxygenated blood.

Sinoatrial (SA) node

Located in the right atrium; known as the pacemaker of the heart as it starts each heartbeat.

Venous valves

Structures that prevent backflow in veins.

Veins

Vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from the body back to the right side of the heart.

Hepatic portal vein

A vein conveying blood to the liver from the spleen and the gastrointestinal tract.

Capillary Exchange

Blood pressure forces fluid out at the arterial end into tissues, while osmotic pressure draws fluid back at the venous end.

Cardiac Impulse Pathway

Sinoatrial (SA) node $\rightarrow$ atrioventricular (AV) node $\rightarrow$ bundle of His $\rightarrow$ bundle branches $\rightarrow$ Purkinje fibers.

Heart Sounds (Lub-Dup)

Lub is the closing of AV valves; Dup is the closing of semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary).

Tunics of Blood Vessels

From deep to superficial: Tunica intima (endothelium), Tunica media (smooth muscle), and Tunica externa (connective tissue).

Pleura

A serous membrane with two layers: the visceral pleura (directly on the lungs) and parietal pleura (lining the chest wall).

Respiratory Zone

Includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli where gas exchange occurs.

External Respiration

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the blood.

Carbonic Acid

Formed during the transport of carbon dioxide in the blood.

Respiratory Control Centers

Located in the medulla oblongata and the pons.

Air Pathway (Inhalation)

Nose/Mouth $\rightarrow$ Pharynx $\rightarrow$ Larynx $\rightarrow$ Trachea $\rightarrow$ Bronchi $\rightarrow$ Bronchioles $\rightarrow$ Alveoli.

Gas Exchange mechanism

Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the membrane by diffusion.

Pulmonary surfactant

Phospholipid substance that reduces surface tension in the alveoli to prevent collapse during exhalation.

Atelectasis

A collapsed lung occurring when alveoli are not properly filled with air.

Bicarbonate ions

$HCO_3^-$; the primary form in which most carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma.

Pepsin

An enzyme activated by hydrochloric acid from pepsinogen that digests proteins in the stomach.

Small Intestine Segments

Proximal end is the duodenum; distal end is the ileum.

Small Intestine Function

Primary site for digestion and nutrient absorption, approximately $20 \text{ feet}$ long.

Peristalsis

The involuntary constriction and relaxation of muscles of the intestine, creating wave-like movements.

Vagus Nerve

Part of the parasympathetic nervous system that regulates digestive activity.

Peyer's patches

Primary defense and sensors in the small intestine to prevent intestinal pathogens from forming.

Intrinsic factor

A key protein required for Vitamin B12 absorption.

Rugae

Folds inside the stomach that flatten to increase stomach volume.

Complement fixation

Immunological process where serum complement proteins bind to an antigen-antibody complex.

Spleen

Acts as a filter for blood to remove old blood cells and detect pathogens.

Innate Immune System

The body's non-specific first and second lines of defense.

Interferons

Cytokine signaling proteins produced in response to pathogens (viruses) to signal neighboring cells to activate antiviral mechanisms.

Antigen

A marker that causes the immune system to produce antibodies to fight bacteria, toxins, viruses, or pollen.

Cytotoxic T cells

Lymphocytes that directly attack and destroy infected or abnormal cells.

Adaptive Immune System

The body's specific third line of defense that creates memory cells to fight specific pathogens faster.

Humoral Immunity

Acquired by B lymphocytes producing antibodies in bodily fluids targeting extracellular pathogens.

Plasma cells

Antibody factories that secrete large quantities of antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction

Immune system attack on all RBCs after a transfusion, potentially leading to kidney failure, shock, or death.

Nephron

The structural and functional unit of the kidney.

Bowman's Capsule

The glomerular capsule where filtration occurs.

Filtrate Components

Urea, creatine, glucose, amino acids, electrolytes, and vitamins.

Trigone

The triangular region of the bladder formed by the two ureteric orifices and the internal urethral orifice.

Urinary Sphincters

Internal (smooth muscle) and External (skeletal muscle) rings that control the release of urine.

Osmoreceptors

Cells in the hypothalamus that react to changes in blood composition and trigger the release of ADH.

Kidney pH Regulation

Controlled by reabsorbing bicarbonate ions, secreting hydrogen ions, and using buffer systems.

Peritubular capillaries

The capillary bed surrounding the renal tubule.

Renal Tubule Parts

Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.

Renin-Angiotensin System Purpose

Designed to raise blood pressure ($BP$) and increase blood volume.

Renal Hilum

Medial indentation where ureters, blood vessels, and nerves enter or exit the kidney.

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

Requires iodine to be produced.

Insulin

Hormone that lowers blood sugar levels.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Hormone released from the adrenal gland during the fight or flight response to increase heart rate and blood sugar.

Alcohol and ADH

Alcohol inhibits antidiuretic hormone, leading to increased water release by kidneys and excessive urination.

Mineralocorticoids

Steroid hormones produced in the adrenal gland that regulate salt and water levels.

Testosterone

Male sex hormone responsible for reproductive tissues and secondary sex characteristics.

Alpha Cells

Pancreatic cells that raise blood sugar by releasing glucagon.

Beta Cells

Pancreatic cells that lower blood sugar by releasing insulin.

Melatonin

Hormone that helps regulate the circadian rhythm (sleeping hormone).

Tropic Hormones

Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones.

Testes

Produce sperm and synthesize testosterone.

Prostate Gland

Located below the bladder; produces $25-30$% of semen fluid to nourish and protect sperm.

SEVEn UP Pathway

S-Seminiferous tubules, E-epididymis, V-Vas Deferens, E-Ejaculatory duct, n-nothing, U-Urethra, P-Penis.

Endometrium

Inner mucous membrane lining the uterus; site for embryo implantation and nourishment.

Estrogen

Primary female sex hormone for developing sexual characteristics and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Oxytocin

Hormone that reduces stress, facilitates bonding, induces labor, and triggers milk ejection.