PSC 126 Exam 1

how the causes of mortality have changed since the 1900s compared to recent trends

• 1900s: acute, infectious disorders

• 2000s: chronic NCDs

• 2020-2023: global pandemic: joint effects of infections due to CDs and NCDs

4 major types of NCDs

• cardiovascular diseases

• diabetes

• chronic respiratory diseases

• cancer

experiment

a study in which two or more diff groups are created to which people are assigned randomly and their reactions are measured

RCT

a type of experiment conducted to evaluate treatments or interventions and their effectiveness

prospective research design

• looks forward in time to see how:

  • people change

  • the correlation between two variables changes over time (which can show causality)

• conducted to understand the risk factors that relate to health conditions

• longitudinal research: same people are observed at multiple points in time

retrospective research design

looks backward in time in an attempt to reconstruct the conditions that led to a current situation

morbidity in epidemiology

# of cases of a disease that exist at some given point in time

mortality in epidemiology

# of deaths due to particular causes

prevalence in epidemiology

proportion of a population who have a specific characteristic

incidence in epidemiology

# of new cases per population in a given time period (ex: 1 year)

quality of life in epidemiology

• key factor to consider beyond morbidity and morality

• values: bodily integrity, feeling safe, feeling self-worth, having structure, sense of belonging, social participation, meaningful daily activities, inner contentment

epidemiology

study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of infectious and noninfectious disease in a population

biopsychosocial model

• health and illness are consequences of biological, psychological, and social factors

• advantage: maintains that macro-level and micro-level processes continually interact to influence health and illness

nudging

any aspect of the choice environment that alters people’s behavior in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentive

eight recommendations proposed by the APA for combatting misinformation

1. avoid repeating misinformation without including a correction

2. collaborate with social media companies to understand and reduce the spread of harmful misinformation

3. use misinformation correction strategies with tools already proven to promote healthy behaviors

4. leverage trusted sources to counter misinformation and provide accurate health misinformation

5. debunk misinformation often and repeatedly using evidence-based methods

6. prebunk misinformation to inoculate susceptible audiences by building skills and resilience from an early age

7. demand data access and transparency from social media companies for scientific research on misinfomration

8. fund basic and translational research into the psychology of health misinformation, including effective ways to counter it

the first and most common strategy of primary prevention

to get people to alter their problematic health behaviors

The use of Antabuse in the treatment of alcoholism involves having the client sip his or her favorite drink while ingesting Antabuse. After several pairings, alcohol becomes associated with the Antabuse and elicits a:

conditioned response

what cognitive-behavior therapy focuses on

self control of one’s health behaviors

behavior change stages

• precontemplation: no intent, no awareness themselves

• contemplation: no intent, yes awareness; interventions can be helpful

• preparation: active planning

• action: yes intent, stops behavior and modifies lifestyle and environment

• maintenance: free >6 months; spiral to prevent relapse

community-based interventions

reach more people than interventions in specific settings like a classroom or workplace

abstinence violation effect

a feeling of loss of control that results when a person has violated self-imposed rules

health behaviors

behaviors undertaken by people to enhance or maintain their health

health habits

behaviors that are firmly established and performed automatically without awareness

the seven positive health habits from Alameda County Study

• sleeping 7-8 hours a night

• not smoking

• eating breakfast every day

• having no more than one or two alcoholic drinks each day

• getting regular exercise

• not eating between meals

• being no more than 10% overweight

primary prevention

taking measures to combat risk factors for illness before it has a chance to develop

strategies: getting people to alter their problematic health behaviors; keeping people from developing poor habits in the first place

secondary prevention

efforts that aim to reduce the impact of a disease or injury that has already occurred; example: diagnostic/screening tests

tertiary prevention

strategy that aims to soften the impact of an ongoing illness or injury that has lasting effects; done by helping people manage long term, often complex health problems and injuries (hospice care, stroke rehabilitation programs)

examples of health behavior determinants

demographics, age, personal values, personal control, social influence, perceived symptoms, access to the health care delivery system, knowledge and cognition

self-determination theory

active motivation: autonomous motivation and perceived competence

cognitive behavioral approaches to behavior change

CBT, self monitoring,

low cardiopulmonary fitness

person with this needs exercise in a week than a normal adult does to derive any benefit from exercise

one health benefit of regular exercise

reduced risk of some cancers

why people who live in low socioeconomic status neighborhoods find it difficult to exercise

they lack safe places to exercise

one of the major causes of preventable death in the US

accidents

how sunscreen should be advertised to adolescents and young adults

the immediate adverse effects of sun exposure

chronic insomnia

trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or getting good quality sleep for at least three weeks a night for at least three months

why smoking behavior is difficult to stop

withdrawal symptoms, associated with pleasurable activities, unaware of longterm benefits

yo yo dieting

method of enhancing the efficiency of food use and lowering the metabolic rate of the body through successive cycles of dieting and weight gain

first phase of treatment programs for severe alcoholism

detoxification

cigarette smoking

one of the greatest causes of preventable death in developed countries by itself and in interaction with other risk factors

how are ex-smokers more likely to be successful short term

having a supportive social network

fight or flight response (Cannon)

sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system is activated

general adaptation system (Hans Selye)

• alarm (drop in stress resistance), resistance (increase in resistance), exhaustion (resistance drops below initial drop bc of “burnout”)

• criticisms:

  • assigns a limited role to psychosocial factors, not all stressors produce the same endocrine responses

  • continued activation accumulates the most damage to physiological systems

  • fails to address the debilitating effects of stress in people

stress

negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable changes

primary appraisal

evaluation of one’s meaning of the event

secondary appraisal

evaluation of one’s personal resources

tend and befriend response

oxytocin; social affiliation and nurturing behavior in addition to “fight or flight”

HPA axis

hypothalamus → CRH

CRH makes pituitary gland → ACTH

ACTH makes adrenal glands → cortisol

cortisol patterns

high waking up, decrease with low point in evening

relationship between scores on the stressful life events inventory and illness

modest

hassles

minor life events that have a cumulative effect on health and illness

risky families

those high in conflict or abuse and low in warmth and nurturance

chronic stress

contributes to psychological distress and physical illness

role ambiguity

when a person has no clear idea of what to do and no idea of the standards used for evaluating their work

role conflict

conflicting information about work tasks and standards

demand-control-support model

high expectations, low authority, and little guidance at work enhance the risk for ill health, especially coronary artery disease

impossible to separate:

interactions among genetic predispositions, physical and social environments, and developmental timing

toxic stress

excessive or prolonged stress system activation, not to the source or nature of any specific stressor

positive, helps children build resistance

mild, short-lived stressors

Shonkoff 3 guiding principles

• reduce sources of stress

• strengthen core skills to provide a well-regulated environment

• support responsive relationships

Shonkoff new approach

intervening early in childhood to prevent later health problems