Chemistry SOL and Final Exam Study Guide

Comprehensive vocabulary and conceptual flashcards covering scientific investigation, atomic theory, bonding, reactions, stoichiometry, gas laws, and organic chemistry based on the lecture transcript.

Precision

Getting the same outcome over and over again.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value.

Atomic mass

#\text{ of protons} + #\text{ of neutrons}

Atomic number

#\text{ of protons} (and #\text{ of electrons} in a neutral atom).

Isotopes

Atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic mass; same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons.

Alpha rays (\alpha)

Helium nucleus ($He_2^4$) with low penetration.

Beta rays (\beta)

Fast moving electrons ($\beta_{-1}^0$) with medium penetration.

Gamma rays (\gamma)

Electromagnetic radiations ($\gamma_0^0$) with very high penetration.

Absolute error

$$\text{theoretical value} - \text{experimental value}$$

Density

$$d = m/v$$

Democritus

Associated with "Atomos" and the SOLID SPHERE MODEL.

JJ Thomson

Used the Cathode ray tube to discover negative particles; proposed the PLUM PUDDING OR CHOCOLATE CHIP COOKIE DOUGH MODEL.

Rutherford

Conducted the Gold foil experiment; proposed the NUCLEAR MODEL where atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, dense nucleus.

Bohr

Studied emission spectrums and proposed the PLANETARY MODEL where electrons orbit the nucleus like planets.

Heisenberg

Proposed the UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE, stating one cannot predict electron position.

Aufbau Principle

Electrons occupy the lowest energy level first.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

An orbital can hold only 2 electrons, and they must have opposite spins.

Hund's Rule

In p, d, and f orbitals, electrons fill each orbital singly before pairing takes place.

Electronegativity

The ability of an atom to attract electrons from another atom; Fluorine has the highest.

Ionization energy

The energy required to remove an electron from an atom; Fluorine has the highest.

Atomic radius

The distance from the nucleus to valence electrons; Francium has the largest.

Ionic bond

A bond between a metal and a non-metal involving the transfer of electrons from a cation to an anion.

Covalent bond

A bond between two nonmetals involving the sharing of electrons.

Diatomic molecules

$$Br_2, I_2, N_2, Cl_2, H_2, O_2, F_2$$

Empirical formula

The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Collision theory

Reactants must collide with the right amount of energy and right orientation to form products.

Le Chatelier’s principle

If a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.

Exothermic reaction

A reaction where energy is released ($\Delta H$ is negative) and heat is a product.

Endothermic reaction

A reaction where energy is absorbed ($\Delta H$ is positive) and heat is a reactant.

Neutralization

$$\text{Acid} + \text{Base} \rightarrow \text{Salt} + \text{Water}$$

Oxidation (LEO)

The loss of electrons (e.g., $Fe^{2+} \rightarrow Fe^{3+} + e^-$).

Reduction (GER)

The gain of electrons (e.g., $Cl_2 + 2e^- \rightarrow 2Cl^-$).

Law of conservation of mass

In a chemical reaction, the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants.

Boyle’s law

$$P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$$

Charles’s law

$$\frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$$

Ideal Gas law

$$PV = nRT$$

Entropy

Measurement of the degree of randomness or disorder of a system.

Specific heat Capacity

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of $1\,g$ of any substance by $1^{\circ}C$.

Triple point

The temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and gas phases coexist.

Molarity (M)

$$\frac{\text{Moles of solute}}{\text{liters of solution}}$$

Saturated solution

A solution that cannot take more solute at a given temperature.

Alkanes

Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds between carbons; the least reactive.

Alkynes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons with triple bonds between carbons; the most reactive.