families and households - couples

how do sociologists see childhood ?

as socially constructed, something created and defined by society.

what do sociologists argue about the meaning and position of childhood ?

what people mean, and the position that children occupy in society, is not fixed but differs between different times, places and cultures.

what does our society accept regarding childhood?

childhood is a special time of life and that children are fundamentally different from adults and are regarded as physically and psychologically immature and not yet competent to run their own lives.

in western society why is childhood necessary ?

children's lack of skills, knowledge and experience means that they need a lengthy, protected period of nurturing and socialisation before they are ready for adult society and its responsibilities.

what does Jane Pilcher (1995) note ?

the most important feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness.

how is separateness in childhood emphasised ?

* through laws regulating what children are allowed, required or forbidden to do.
* differences in dress, products and services specially for children, such as toys, food, books, entertainments, play areas etc.

what idea is related to the separateness of children's status ?

the idea of childhood as a 'golden age' of happiness and innocence.

what does the innocence of childhood mean ?

children are seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from the dangers of the adult world and so they must be kept separated from it.

what is a result of the innocence of childhood ?

children's lives are lived largely in the sphere of the family and education, where adults provide for them and protect them from the outside world.

how are children's and adults lives different ?

Unlike adults, children lead lives of leisure and play and are largely excluded from paid work.

what is a problem with the separate age status view ?

this view of is not found in all societies. It is not universal

what did Stephen Wagg (1992) say about difference in childhood between cultures ?

"Childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular societies, at particular times and in particular places, say it is. There is no single universal childhood, experienced by all. So, childhood isn't "natural" and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity."

what approach is a good way to illustrate the social construction of childhood ?

a comparative approach

what is meant by a comparative approach when looking at the social construction of childhood ?

how children are seen and treated in other times and places than our own.

what does Ruth Benedict (1934) argue ?

children in simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated differently front their modern western counterparts in three ways

what are the three ways that children in non industrial societies are treated differently according to Ruth Benedict (1934) ?

- they take responsibility at an early age

- less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority

- children's sexual behaviour is often viewed differently

What did Samantha Punch's (2001) study on childhood in rural Bolivia find about children taking responsibility at an early age?

once children are about five years old, they are expected to take work responsibilities in the home and in the community, Tasks are taken on without question or hesitation

What did Lowell Holmes' (1974) study of a Samoan village find about children taking responsibility at an early age?

too young' was never given as reason for not permitting a child to undertake a particular task: Whether it be the handling of dangerous tools or the carrying of extremely heavy loads, if a child thinks he can handle the activity, parents do not object'.

what did Raymond Firth (1970) find among the Tikopia of the western Pacific regarding less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority ?

doing as you are told by a grown-up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child, not a right to be expected by the adult.

What did Bronislaw Malinowski find among the Trobriand Islanders of the SW Pacific regarding children's sexual behavior is often viewed differently?

adults took an attitude of 'tolerance and amused interest' towards children's sexual explorations and activities.

what did Ruth Benedict argue about the Dividing line between the behaviour expected of children and adults?

there is much less of dividing line in many non-industrial cultures

what does Benedict's view on the dividing line show?

childhood is not a fixed thing found universally in the same form in all human societies, but is socially constructed and so differs from culture to culture.

what do some sociologists argue about western notions of childhood?

they are being globalised

what is an affect of International humanitarian and welfare agencies on childhood?

they have imposed western norms of what childhood should be on the rest of the world

what are the western norms of childhood being imposed on the rest of the world ?

A separate life stage, based in the nuclear family and school, in which children are innocent, dependent and vulnerable, and have no economic role.

how are international humanitarian and welfare agencies imposing western norms on the rest of the world?

campaigns against child labour, or concerns about 'street children' in developing countries, reflect western views about how childhood 'ought' to be

what is a problem with International humanitarian and welfare agencies imposing western norms to the rest of the world?

such activity by children may be the norm for the culture and an important preparation for adult life.

what do many sociologists and historians argue about childhood?

childhood as we understand it today is a relatively recent 'invention'

what does the historian Philippe Aries (1960) argue?

in the Middle Ages (about 10th to the 13th centuries), 'the idea of childhood did not exist'.

Children were not seen as having a different 'nature' or needs from adults

when did children reach 'adulthood' in the middle ages?

Soon after being weaned, the child entered wider society on much the same terms as an adult, beginning work from an early age

Children were in effect 'mini-adults' with the same rights, duties and skills as adults. The law often made no distinction between children and adults, and children often faced the same severe punishments as those meted out to adults.

how does Aries support his view?

with art from the time period, the children appear without "any of the characteristics of childhood: they have simply been depicted on a smaller scale'

The paintings show children and adults dressed in the same clothing and working and playing together.

what does Edward Shorter (1975) argue?

high death rates encouraged indifference and neglect, especially towards infants.

For example, it was not uncommon for parents to give a newborn baby the name of a recently dead sibling, to refer to the baby as 'it', or to forget how many children they had had.

according to Aries, when did elements of the modern childhood emerge?

from the 13th century

how did modern childhood emerge?

- through schools

- a distinction in childrens and adults clothing

- handbooks on child rearing from the 18th century

what did developments in the modern childhood lead to ?

the modern 'cult of childhood'

what did Aries argue abut the modern 'cult of childhood'?

He argues that we have moved from a world that did not see childhood as in any way special, to a world that is obsessed with childhood.

He describes the 20th century as 'the century of the child"

how has Aries been criticised for arguing that childhood didn't exist in the past?

Linda Pollock (1983) argues that it is more correct to say that in the Middle Ages, society simply had a different notion of childhood from today's.

why is Aries work valuable?

it shows that childhood is socially constructed: he demonstrates how ideas about children and their social status have varied over time

what changes during the 19th and 20th century led to change in the position of children?(8 reasons)

- laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work

- the introduction of compulsory schooling in 1880

- child protection and welfare legislation

- the growth of the idea of children's rights

- declining family size and lower infant mortality rates

- children's development became the subject of medical knowledge

- laws and policies that apply specifically to children

- industrialisation

how has child protection and welfare legislation led to changes in the position of children?

-Such as the 1889 Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act.

-The 1989 Children Act made the welfare of the child the fundamental principle underpinning the work of agencies such as social services.

how has the growth of the idea of children's rights led to changes in the position of children?

-For example, the Children Act defines parents as having 'responsibilities' rather than 'rights' in relation to children,

-The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) lays down basic rights such as entitlement to healthcare and education, protection from abuse and the right to participate in decisions that affect them such as custody cases

how has declining family size and lower infant mortality rates led to changes in the position of children?

they encouraged parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children that they now have.

how has industrialisation led to changes in the position of children?

- modern industry needs an educated workforce and this requires compulsory schooling of the young.

-higher standards of living and better welfare provision that industry makes possible lead to lower infant mortality rates. Industrialisation is thus a key factor in bringing about the modern idea of childhood and the changed status of children.

how have laws and policies that apply specifically to children led to changes in the position of children?

Such as minimum ages for a wide range of activities, from sex to smoking, have reinforced the idea that children are different from adults and so different rules must be applied to their behaviour.

who's view is influential regarding the future of childhood?

Neil Postman (1994)

what does Neil Postman (1994) argue?

childhood is 'disappearing at a dazzling speed'.

why does Postman (1994) say that childhood is disappearing?

the trend towards giving children the same rights as adults, the disappearance of children's traditional unsupervised games, the growing similarity of adults' and children's clothing, and even to cases of children committing 'adult' crimes such as murder.

what does Postman (1994) say the cause of childhood emerging and disappearing is?

the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture.

why does is childhood disapperaing due to TV culture?

TV blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood by destroying the information hierarchy.

how does TV destroy the information hierarchy?

Unlike the printed word, TV does not require special skills to access it, and it makes information available to adults and children alike.

The boundary between adult and child is broken down, adult authority diminishes, and the ignorance and innocence of childhood is replaced by knowledge and cynicism.

what is the effect of the boundary between adult and children being broken down?

The counterpart of the disappearance of childhood is the disappearance of adulthood, where adults' and children's tastes and styles become indistinguishable.

what does Iona Opie (1993) argue? (contrast with Postman)

childhood is not disappearing. Based on research into children's unsupervised games, rhymes and songs, she argues that there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children's culture over many years

how is postman's study valuable?

in showing how different types of communication technology such as print and television, can influence the way in which childhood is constructed

why may Postman be inaccurate?

he overemphasises a single cause - television - at the expense of other factors that have influenced the development of childhood

what does Christopher Jenks (2005) believe?

unlike Postman he does not believe childhood is disappearing, but he does believe it is changing.

who does Jenks agree with?

Aries, that childhood was a creation of modern society.

what does Jenks believe about modern society?

modern society (especially the 20th century) was concerned with 'futurity' and childhood was seen as a preparation for the individual to become a productive adult in the future.

how does the modern society and a productive adult need to be achieved?

the vulnerable, undeveloped child needed to be nurtured, protected and controlled, especially by the child-centered family and by the education system, which imposed discipline and conformity on children.

how is childhood changing according to Jenks' argument?

childhood is once again undergoing change as society moves from modernity to postmodernity.

how do adult relationships differ between modern and postmodern society?

In modern society, adults' relationships were more stable,

but in postmodern society, the pace of change speeds up and relationships become more unstable.

For example, divorce becomes much more common.

why does Jenks disagree with postman that we are seeing the disappearance of childhood?

because childhood continues to be a separate status, and the legal and other restrictions placed on what children can do continues to mark them off from adults

evaluation of Jenks

the evidence for and against is limited, There is some evidence that parents see their relationship with their children as more, important than with their partners, and that parents are very concerned about the risks they believe their children face

However the evidence comes from small unrepresentative studies

Jenks is guilty of over-generalising. Despite the greater family diversity and childhood patterns found today (such as lone-parent families, stepfamilies etc),

He makes rather sweeping statements that imply all children are in the same situation

what does the march of progress view argue about the position of childhood?

over the past few centuries, the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today is better than it has ever been.

how does the march of progress view see the position of childhood in the past?

a dark picture

how does Lloyd De Mause (1974) describe childhood in the past?(march of progress)

'The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused.'

what view do writers such as Aries and Shorter hold?

March of Progresss

what do Aries and Shorter argue in their march of progress view?

today's children are more valued, better cared for, protected and educated, enjoy better health and have more rights than those of previous generations.

what is an example of children being more valued and better cared for today?

children today are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child abuse and child labour, while a range of professionals and specialists focus on their educational, psychological and medical needs. The government spends a lot on their education.

what does better healthcare and standards of living mean?

babies have a much better chance of survival now than a century ago.

In 1900, the infant mortality rate was 154 Per 1,000 live births; today, it is 4 per 1,000.

what do higher living standards and smaller family sizes mean?

parents can afford to provide for their children's needs properly

how have the size of families changed since the 1860s?

5.7 births per woman in the 1860s to 1.83 in 2014

how much are children estimated to cost their parents by the time they are 21?

over £227,000.

what do march of progress sociologists argue about the structure of the family?

it has become child-centred.

how have families become child centred?

Children are no longer to be "seen and not heard', as they were in Victorian times.