Waldman CP Final 2026

What do all organisms need a constant supply of to survive?

Energy

What is the ultimate source of energy for most life on earth?

The sun

What process converts solar energy into usable energy?

Photosynthesis

Through photosynthesis, sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide are converted into chemical energy stored in what?

Glucose

What macromolecule is glucose?

Sugar/Carbohydrate

How is water absorbed into a plant?

Through the roots

How is CO2 absorbed into a plant?

Through the leaves

What is the chemical equation used to represent photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

What is another word for ingredients in a chemical equation?

Reactants

What is another word for results in a chemical equation?

Products

What are the reactants of photosynthesis?

CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water)

What are the products of photosynthesis?

C6H12O6 (glucose) and O2 (oxygen)

What is necessary for photosynthesis to happen but is not considered a reactant or product?

Solar energy

Where does photosynthesis take place?

In the chloroplast

What part of the chloroplast is made up of pancake-like stacks of thylakoid membrane?

Grana

What part of the chloroplast is the fluid-like substance that fills the space between the grana?

Stroma

Where is chlorophyll located in the chloroplast?

The grana

What are the two stages of photosynthesis?

Light Dependent Reaction and Light Independent Reaction

What is required for the Light Dependent Reaction to occur?

Solar energy

What is the purpose of the Light Dependent Reaction?

To capture energy from the sun and store energy in energy carrying molecules.

What are the energy carrying molecules made during the Light Dependent Reaction?

ATP and NADPH

What is the location of the Light Dependent Reaction?

The grana (specifically the thylakoid membrane where chlorophyll is stored.)

What pigment captures sunlight?

Chlorophyll

What are water molecules split into during the Light Dependent Reaction?

Hydrogen and oxygen

What is released as a product of the Light Dependent Reaction?

Oxygen

What leaves the grana and travels to the stroma for the next stage of photosynthesis?

ATP, NADH, and Hydrogen (H+)

What does the Light Independent Reaction not require?

Solar energy

What is the purpose of the Light Independent Reaction?

To use the solar energy from the energy carrying molecules to make sugar (glucose)

What bonds with A in DNA?

T

What bonds with C in DNA?

G

How many strands does an RNA molecule have?

One

What are tightly coiled strands of DNA called?

Chromosomes

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

23 pairs

What is a section of DNA that has instructions to code for a protein?

Gene

What is the process of copying DNA called?

DNA Replication

When does DNA replication happen in mitosis?

S phase of Interphase

Where does DNA replication happen?

Nucleus

What is the first step of DNA replication?

Unzip the DNA

What is the second step of DNA replication?

Enzymes find the complementary base pairs and bind them according to the base pairing rules

What kind of cells are formed when DNA replication occurs?

2 identical

Why is DNA replication considered to be semi-conservative?

The newly synthesized DNA molecules are a combination of one 'old' strand and one 'new' strand

What is the process of reading the instructions to make a polypeptide?

Protein Synthesis

What is a chain of amino acids called?

Polypeptide

Where are proteins made?

Ribosomes

What are the two steps of protein synthesis?

Transcription and translation

What is DNA to RNA?

Transcription

What is RNA to protein?

Translation

What type of RNA copies instructions in DNA and carries them to the ribosomes?

mRNA

What type of RNA binds and carries specific amino acids to the ribosome?

tRNA

What type of RNA makes up ribosomes, along with proteins?

rRNA

Which is first, translation or transcription?

Transcription

Where does transcription happen?

Nucleus

What does transcription start with?

DNA

What does transcription end with?

mRNA

What is the first step of transcription?

Unzip the gene that needs to be copied

What is the second step of transcription?

Use the complementary base-pairing rules to match RNA nucleotides with the exposed DNA molecules

What is the third step of transcription?

The completed mRNA molecule is released and the DNA zips back up; the mRNA enters the cytoplasm

What is a set of 3 nucleotides on the mRNA called?

A codon

Which molecule carries the complementary nucleotides to the mRNA?

tRNA

Where does translation occur?

The Ribosomes

What does translation start with?

mRNA

What does translation end with?

Polypeptide

What is the first step of translation?

mRNA attaches to the ribosome

What is the second step of translation?

The ribosome reads the mRNA codons STARTING AT AUG

What is the third step of translation?

The tRNA's pick up and drop off the amino acids that match with each codon, and the ribosome binds the amino acids together with peptide bonds

What is the fourth step of translation?

When the stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the complete polypeptide chain

What is the purpose of DNA replication?

To make 2 identical DNA strands

What are the building blocks used in DNA replication?

Nucleotides: A,T,C,G

Where does DNA replication happen in the cell?

Nucleus

What is the purpose of transcription?

To produce a strand of mRNA from DNA

What are the building blocks of transcription?

Nucleotides: A,U,C,G

Where does transcription happen in the cell?

Nucleus

What is the purpose of translation?

To produce a protein from mRNA

What are the building blocks in translation?

tRNAs and amino acids

Where does translation happen in the cell?

Ribosomes

What are regulatory proteins that control gene activity?

Transcription factors

What do repressors do?

Decrease transcription

What do activators do?

Increase transcription

What is the difference between epigenetics and mutations?

Mutations are the change in DNA sequence and epigenetics only affects how the DNA sequences get expressed.

What are diploid (2n) body cells called?

Somatic cells

What are haploid (n) sex cells called?

Gametes

What cells have 2 full sets of chromosomes?

Diploid cells

What cells have 1 full set of chromosomes?

Haploid cells

What is a diagram that shows the number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in a cell?

Karyotype

What are the first 22 pairs of chromosomes called?

Autosomes

What is the 23rd pair of chromosomes called?

Sex Chromosomes

What is the process of cell division that makes gametes?

Meiosis

What are chromosome pairs that have the same types of genes?

Homologous chromosomes (one from mom and one from dad)

What are 2 identical copies of the same chromosome called?

Sister chromatids

How many times does cell division happen in meiosis?

Twice

What is Meiosis 1?

Separation of homologous chromosomes

What is a cluster of 4 chromatids called?

Tetrad

When does the nuclear membrane of the cell break down and homologous chromosomes pair up and become visible?

Prophase 1

When is it possible for crossing over to occur?

Prophase 1

When do homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell in pairs?

Metaphase 1

When are the homologous chromosome pairs separated and pulled to each side of the cell?

Anaphase 1

When is it possible for the nuclear membranes to reform and the cell's cytoplasm is split into 2 cells?

Telophase 1 (and Cytokinesis)

What is Meiosis 2?

The separation of sister chromatids

When do the nuclear membranes break down (if they reformed) and spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the sister chromatids?

Prophase 2

When do the sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell, single file?

Metaphase 2