Chapter 1: Out of Old Worlds, New Worlds

What geographical region was home to many early West African agricultural societies?

The savanna, a grassland region between the Sahara Desert and tropical rain forests.

What were common crops grown by West African peoples?

Rice, millet, sorghum, root crops, and vegetables.

What does "matrilineal" mean?

Property and political authority passed through the mother's family line.

What religious belief was common among many West African societies?

Animism—the belief that spirits inhabit nature and ancestors influence daily life.

What was the first major West African kingdom discussed in the chapter?

Ghana.

What religion contributed to the decline of Ghana?

Islam, through Muslim invasions and expansion.

Which kingdoms succeeded Ghana?

Mali and Songhai.

Why was Timbuktu important?

It was a major center of trade, learning, and religion.

What powerful city-states existed south of Songhai?

Congo and Benin.

What economic system dominated Europe from about 500–1100?

Feudal agriculture.

Who owned most European land before 1400?

Nobles, monarchs, and the Catholic Church.

What were serfs?

Peasants bound to work land owned by nobles.

How did Europeans generally view land differently than Native Americans?

Europeans emphasized ownership, fencing, and permanent cultivation.

What role did women play in European society?

Women were generally subordinate to men and could not inherit property equally.

Why were many marriages arranged?

To preserve family property and alliances.

What agricultural improvements appeared after 1100?

Iron plows, crop rotation, better milling, and increased use of horses and oxen.

What was the Black Death?

A devastating plague that killed one-third to one-half of Europe's population between 1347 and 1353.

What were the effects of the Black Death?

Labor shortages, economic disruption, social unrest, and peasant revolts.

Who were the Vikings?

Scandinavian seafarers who explored and raided across Europe and the North Atlantic.

Who was Leif Erikson?

A Norse explorer who reached North America around 1000 CE.

What were the Crusades?

Religious wars between Christians and Muslims from 1095–1270.

How did the Crusades affect Europe?

They increased trade and exposure to new ideas, technologies, and goods.

Why is Marco Polo significant?

His travels to Asia increased European interest in Eastern trade.

What happened to Europe's population after the plague declined?

It began growing rapidly.

What was one major agricultural problem in the 1500s?

Population growth outpaced food production.

What were the Enclosure Acts?

Laws allowing landowners to fence off common lands for private use.

Why did English landowners support enclosure?

To raise sheep and profit from wool production.

How did enclosure affect peasants?

Many lost access to land and became wage laborers or migrants.

What did Thomas More mean by "sheep eat men"?

Sheep farming displaced peasants from their land.

What was the "putting-out system"?

Merchants supplied raw materials to rural families who produced goods at home.

What industry was central to England's economy?

Wool and textile production.

What is a nation-state?

A centralized government ruling a unified territory and population.

Which country first developed a strong centralized monarchy?

Portugal.

Who united Spain?

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.

What was the Spanish Inquisition?

A campaign to enforce Catholic religious unity.

What happened to Spain's Jews and Muslims in 1492?

They were expelled or forced to convert.

What ended the Wars of the Roses in England?

Henry VII's victory in 1485.

What was the Renaissance?

A cultural revival emphasizing classical learning, art, science, and human potential.

Which family dominated Renaissance Florence?

The Medici family.

Who painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling?

Michelangelo.

Who challenged Church teachings through astronomy?

Galileo Galilei.

Who wrote The Prince?

Niccolò Machiavelli.

What was a major theme of Renaissance thought?

Humanism.

What practice sparked Martin Luther's protest?

The sale of indulgences.

What were indulgences?

Church-granted reductions of punishment for sins.

What document did Luther publish in 1517?

The Ninety-Five Theses.

What was Luther's belief about salvation?

Salvation comes through faith, not works.

What is predestination?

The belief that God determines who will be saved.

What technology helped spread Luther's ideas?

The printing press.

Who founded Calvinism?

John Calvin.

What did Calvin teach?

That God had chosen the "elect" for salvation.

What values became associated with Calvinism?

Hard work, thrift, discipline, and sobriety.

What was the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre?

The killing of thousands of French Protestants in 1572.

What was the Edict of Nantes?

A 1598 law granting limited religious freedom to French Protestants.

Why did Henry VIII break from the Catholic Church?

The pope refused to annul his marriage.

What church did Henry VIII establish?

The Church of England (Anglican Church).

Who finalized the Anglican settlement?

Elizabeth I.

Who were the Puritans?

English Protestants seeking to remove Catholic influences from the Church of England.

What groups emerged from radical Reformation movements?

Anabaptists, Mennonites, Amish, Baptists, and Quakers.

Which European nation led early Atlantic exploration?

Portugal.

Who sponsored many Portuguese voyages?

Prince Henry the Navigator.

What trading post did Portugal establish on the Gold Coast?

Elmina.

Who reached the Cape of Good Hope?

Bartholomeu Dias.

Who reached India by sea in 1498?

Vasco da Gama.

Why did Portugal become involved in the slave trade?

To supply labor for sugar plantations.

How was European slavery different from most African slavery?

It became hereditary, racial, and permanent.

What was Columbus trying to find?

A western route to Asia.

Who financed Columbus's voyage?

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain.

In what year did Columbus sail?

1492.

What people did Columbus first encounter?

The Taino.

What mistaken belief did Columbus maintain throughout his life?

That he had reached Asia.

Why were Native peoples called "Indians"?

Columbus believed he had reached the Indies.

What was the Treaty of Tordesillas?

A 1494 agreement dividing newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

Who conquered the Aztec Empire?

Hernán Cortés.

What Native ally helped Cortés?

Malintzin (La Malinche).

Who was the Aztec ruler during Cortés's invasion?

Moctezuma.

What disease devastated the Aztecs?

Smallpox.

Who conquered the Inca Empire?

Francisco Pizarro.

Who was the Inca ruler captured by Pizarro?

Atahualpa.

Why were the Spanish successful against the Aztecs and Incas?

Superior weapons, horses, Native allies, and disease.

Who explored Florida in 1513?

Juan Ponce de León.

Who wrote an important account of exploration in the Southwest?

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca.

What mythical city did Coronado search for?

Cibola, the "Seven Cities of Gold."

What was the Columbian Exchange?

The transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds.

What animals did Europeans introduce to the Americas?

Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats.

What crops did Europeans bring to the Americas?

Wheat, rice, barley, coffee, and sugarcane.

What crops moved from the Americas to Europe?

Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, beans, squash, peanuts, tobacco, and cacao.

What was Europe's most valuable import from the Americas?

Silver.

What labor system supported sugar plantations?

African slavery.

What diseases devastated Native populations?

Smallpox, influenza, measles, typhus, malaria, and pneumonia.

Why were Native Americans especially vulnerable to disease?

They had no prior exposure or immunity.

How did Columbus describe the Taino?

Generous, peaceful, physically attractive, and easily converted to Christianity.

What assumptions shaped Columbus's observations?

European cultural superiority and expectations of kings, cities, and private property.

Who was Bartolomé de Las Casas?

A Spanish priest who criticized Spanish treatment of Native Americans.

What did Las Casas believe motivated conquest?

Greed for gold and wealth.

How did Las Casas describe Spanish actions?

Brutal massacres and exploitation.

What impact did Las Casas's writings have?

They encouraged criticism of Spanish colonial practices and reforms.