Lecture on Sampling, Group Designs, and Survey Design

These flashcards cover key concepts from sampling, group designs, survey design, and statistical analysis.

What is a population in research?

All possible units in a set being studied.

What is a census?

A systematic process of collecting data from all members of a given population.

Why might conducting a census be impractical?

Due to costs, logistical challenges, and other potential barriers.

What does sampling refer to in research?

The process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population to represent the whole group in a study.

What is a sample?

A subset of the population under study through research.

What are population parameters?

Statistics for the whole population.

What is external validity in research?

How well the results of a study generalize beyond the specific conditions and participants involved in the study.

What is the proximal similarity model?

A model where researchers consider generalizability by matching contexts similar to the study context.

Define theoretical population.

Includes everyone to whom the researcher assumes the findings of a study could generalize.

What is a sampling frame?

A list of individuals or units who are part of the study population.

What is selection bias?

Occurs when the sampling procedure yields a sample that is not representative of the population it purports to represent.

How is response rate calculated?

By dividing the number of respondents by the number of people in the sample and multiplying by 100.

What is nonresponse bias?

Concern that those in the sample who do not respond to a survey are different than those who do reply.

What is probability sampling?

Sampling procedures that utilize random sampling.

What is simple random sampling?

A method where each unit in the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample.

Why might a researcher not rely on probability sampling?

Lack of a sampling frame, rarity of the population, convenience, or need for specific proportions from different groups.

What is convenience sampling?

Involves accessing research participants who are easy to access with minimal logistical preparation.

What is snowball sampling?

A method where existing study participants recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

What does the unit of analysis refer to?

The elements that the researcher is studying.

What distinguishes group design from other designs?

It is primarily intended to make comparisons between or within groups.

What is an independent variable in a group design?

A categorical variable where groups can be formed.

What is a dependent variable?

A variable that is measured by the researcher.

What is a treatment or intervention in research?

Changes in a research study that may influence the dependent variable.

What are the two main types of tests in group designs?

Pretest and posttest.

What is a one-group pretest, posttest design?

A group design with a single group that receives a treatment and has its dependent variable measured before and after the treatment.

What is the problem with a one-group pretest, posttest design?

Cannot easily eliminate alternative explanations for observed changes.

What is a two-group posttest only design?

A design that compares the posttest values of the dependent variable across two different groups.

What is random assignment in experimental research?

A process used to place participants into different groups by chance.

Define experimental design.

A type of group design where the researcher manipulates the attributes of an independent variable and measures the dependent variable.

What is a quasi-experimental design?

An experiment that has a comparison group but lacks random assignment.

What is probabilistic equivalence?

The assumption that groups are equal at the start of a study.

What is the advantage of a two-group experimental design?

It achieves probabilistic equivalence through random assignment, improving internal validity.

What characterizes a two-way factorial experimental design?

It examines both main effects and interactions between two independent variables.

What is a laboratory experiment?

An experiment that takes place in a controlled, sterile setting.

What is a field experiment?

An experiment that takes place in real-world settings rather than in a laboratory.

What is survey design?

A means of collecting data by asking people questions on topics of interest.

How can surveys be administered?

Face-to-face, over the phone, by mail, or online.

What is a respondent in the context of surveys?

An individual who completes a survey.

What are questionnaires?

A set of written questions used to gather information from individuals.

What is a key consideration between using a questionnaire and an interview?

The degree to which respondents may need clarification while answering.

What are the types of questions commonly used in surveys?

Yes/no, multiple-choice, single words, short answers, and open-ended questions.

What is social desirability bias?

The tendency for respondents to give socially acceptable answers rather than honest ones.

What is an opening question in a survey?

Questions designed to draw respondents into completing a survey.

What should sensitive survey items be prepared for?

They should be sensitively phrased, placed appropriately, and allow skipping if requested.

What is qualitative research?

Research that utilizes qualitative data and methodology.

What is an ethnography?

A qualitative approach focusing on the in-depth, holistic study of a culture or social group.

What is participant-observer?

A researcher who actively engages in the activities they are observing.

What does phenomenology focus on in research?

How individuals experience and make meaning of a particular phenomenon.

What is field research?

An approach collecting data directly from real-world environments.

What does content analysis involve?

The systematic examination and interpretation of communication content to identify patterns or themes.

What is an unobtrusive research method?

Methods of conducting research without directly interacting with subjects being studied.

What is descriptive statistics?

Ways of summarizing (describing) the data in a particular dataset in a simplified form.

What are measures of central tendency?

Methods of describing the typical or average value in a dataset.

Define mode in statistics.

The value that occurs most frequently in a dataset.

What is the median?

The middle value in a dataset when all values are ordered from smallest to largest.

What is the mean?

The arithmetic average of a set of data.

What is frequency in terms of data?

The number of times a particular value appears in a set of data.

What is a normal distribution?

A symmetrical bell-shaped data distribution where most values cluster around the mean.

What are outliers in a dataset?

Values that stray far from most of the values in a dataset.

What does skewness refer to?

How far the shape of a distribution deviates from a bell-shaped curve.

What is kurtosis in statistics?

A measure of how peaked or flat a distribution is compared to a normal distribution.

What does variance measure?

How much the values in a dataset differ from the mean.

What is standard deviation?

The square root of the variance.

What is inferential statistics?

Statistics that allow for estimates of population parameters or to test causal hypotheses.

What is significance testing?

The statistical process to determine whether particular findings are due to chance or reflect true findings in a population.

What does the p-value represent?

An estimate of the likelihood that a given finding is due to chance alone.

What is effect size?

The statistical size of the difference or the effect in a study.

What kind of independent variable and dependent variable does a t-test analyze?

A binary independent variable and quantitative dependent variable.

What does the chi-square test analyze?

Both independent variable and dependent variable that are categorical.

What is the theoretical population in the context of sampling?

Everyone you could potentially generalize your findings to.

What is an accessible population?

The subset of people actually contacted or studied.

Define sampling frame.

The list or database from which participants are selected.

Give an example of simple random sampling.

A researcher using random number software to select students from a list.

What is quota sampling?

Stopping once specified groups (e.g., 70% teens, 30% adults) are filled.

What occurs during convenience sampling?

Handing out flyers in easily accessible locations.

What defines snowball sampling?

Participants refer others for inclusion in the study.

What is a pretest?

Variable measured before the treatment is introduced.

What does a posttest measure?

Variable measured after the treatment intervention.

What is an experimental design characterized by?

Using both a comparison group and random assignment.

Define a non-experimental design.

A design that does not include a comparison group or utilize random assignment.

What does a quasi-experimental design lack?

Random assignment while having a comparison group.

What type of design focuses on lived experiences and subjective meaning?

Phenomenology.

What does qualitative research often collect through observation?

Behaviors as they occur in natural or controlled settings.

What examples can be analyzed in content analysis?

News articles, social media posts, political speeches, and documents.

What are the themes in qualitative research?

Subjects of information rather than verbatim information.

What is a dichotomous survey item?

A survey item that offers only two possible choices.

What is a leading question?

A survey question that influences the respondent toward a particular answer.

What is a loaded question?

A survey question that contains an assumption about the respondent.

What does the response format refer to in survey design?

The specific way survey respondents are asked to provide their answers.

What defines mutually exclusive options in surveys?

Survey items that do not overlap with other options.

What are exhaustive options in survey items?

All possible answers being included as choices.

What is the difference between sensitive survey items and common items?

Sensitive items may make respondents uncomfortable, while common items do not.

What is a filter question?

A question to determine whether a respondent is eligible for the survey.

What is telescoping in survey responses?

A memory error where someone believes something happened more recently or less recently than it actually did.

What is random sampling?

Selecting individuals from a sampling frame based on random selection.

What is a variable in research?

A characteristic or attribute that can have different values.

What is a qualitative approach that focuses on an in-depth understanding of a particular phenomenon?

Phenomenology.

What is an interview in the context of data collection?

A method where a researcher asks questions directly to a respondent.

What is a focus group?

A qualitative data collection method involving group discussions guided by a moderator.

What are structured survey items?

Items that offer predefined answer choices to ensure uniform responses.