AP Human Geography Unit 4 Notes: How States Gain, Lose, and Share Power

Sovereignty

A state’s ability to control what happens inside its borders and to act independently in the international system.

Challenges to sovereignty

Pressures that make it harder for a state to govern effectively, keep its territory unified, or make decisions without outside influence.

Governance (in political geography)

How decisions are made, where authority is located, and how the state manages differences across its territory (e.g., language, religion, ethnicity, economy).

Unitary state

A state in which power is primarily held by the central government; local governments have limited authority granted by the center and can typically be overridden or reorganized.

Federal state

A state in which power is shared between a central government and regional units (states/provinces) that have constitutionally protected authority.

Confederation

A system where independent states cooperate on some matters but the central authority is weak and member units retain most sovereignty.

Supranationalism

An arrangement where multiple states form an organization with authority over member states in agreed-upon areas, including binding rules/decisions in those domains.

European Union (EU)

A commonly cited supranational organization in AP Human Geography where member states accept binding authority in certain policy areas (e.g., trade and regulations).

Intergovernmental organization

An international organization based mainly on voluntary cooperation in which member states retain full legal sovereignty over decisions (not binding above the state like supranationalism).

United Nations (UN)

A major international organization typically described as intergovernmental because enforcement depends heavily on member state consent and capabilities.

Democracy

A regime type emphasizing competitive elections and political participation; sovereignty challenges often appear through formal channels (parties, referendums, courts).

Authoritarian system

A regime type that concentrates power in a leader or small group and limits opposition; challenges may be suppressed but can intensify grievances and instability.

Centripetal forces

Forces that unify a country and increase political stability by pulling people toward identification with the state and cooperation within it.

Centrifugal forces

Forces that divide a country and decrease political stability by pushing regions/groups away from the center (fragmentation, separatism, distrust).

Legitimacy

Public belief that a government has the right to rule; stronger legitimacy tends to strengthen sovereignty and stability.

National identity

A shared sense of “we” that ties people to the state; stronger national identity typically acts as a centripetal force.

State capacity

A government’s ability to deliver services and enforce laws across its territory; higher capacity generally strengthens sovereignty.

Integration (territorial/economic)

Infrastructure and economic ties that make regions interdependent (e.g., roads, rail, internet, trade), reducing isolation and supporting unity.

Civic nationalism

National identity based on shared laws, institutions, and citizenship rather than ethnicity; often functions as a centripetal force.

Ethnonationalism

Nationalism based on shared ethnicity or closely related cultural traits; can motivate separatism and act as a centrifugal force.

Uneven development

Economic disparities between regions that can create grievances (neglect or resentment over redistribution), often increasing centrifugal pressures.

Political exclusion

When groups feel locked out of power or representation, weakening legitimacy and often fueling centrifugal forces.

Devolution

Transfer of power from a central government to regional governments within a state; the central state remains sovereign overall but grants regions more authority.

Asymmetric devolution

A form of devolution where some regions receive more autonomy than others, often due to stronger identity movements or distinct regional demands.

Secession

Formal withdrawal of a region from a state to form an independent state; a potential consequence of strong centrifugal forces.