Functionalism, Strain Theory & Subcultural Theory

What are focal concerns?

the values that working class boys are socialised into meaning that they are more likely to engage in delinquent or deviant behaviour

What are the 6 focal concerns?

• excitement

• toughness

• smartness

• trouble

• autonomy

• fate

What is ‘excitement’?

seeking out excitement, particularly when not at work

What is ‘toughness’?

wishing to prove that they are “tough” or “hard”

What is ‘smartness’?

using wit or smart remarks

What is ‘trouble’?

finding themselves in trouble, linked to excitement or toughness

What is ‘autonomy’?

wishing to be independent and not reliant on others

What is ‘fate’?

believing that their future is already decided and what they do will not influence it

What are some criticisms of focal concerns?

• does not consider gender

• focal concerns may be masculine values rather than just working class ones

• many working class girls also have these “concerns”

What are the 5 techniques of neutralisation?

• denial of responsibility

• denial of injury

• denial of victim

• condemnation of the condemners

• appealing to higher loyalties

What are some examples of denial of responsibility?

• “It wasn’t my fault”

• “I had no choice”

What is an example of denial of injury?

“No one got hurt”

What is denial of victim?

“They deserved it”

What is an example of condemnation of condemners?

“The police are corrupt anyway”

What is example of appealing to higher loyalties?

“I did it for my friends/family”

What are the key aspects of Cloward & Ohlin’s illegitimate opportunity structure theory?

• there is a lack of legitimate opportunity structures

• explains why some subcultures are are centred on vandalism and violence and why others are centred on utilitarian (financially motivated) crimes

• it is not just a lack of access to legitimate opportunity structures that influences subcultures, but also access to illegitimate opportunity structures

According to Cloward & Ohlin, what are the 3 types of subculture?

• criminal

• conflict

• retreatist

What are the characteristics of criminal subcultures?

• a thriving local criminal subculture

• successful role models

• young people see examples of individuals from the same backgrounds at them who become successful in criminal careers

• individuals are often recruited young

• opportunities to take criminal careers further

What are the characteristics of conflict subcultures?

• no local criminal subculture

• territorial gangs recruiting young people in the neighbourhood

• engaging in violence against one another as violence is a means of achieving respect or status for young people

• respect may be a substitute for qualifications or a well-paid job

What are the characteristics of retreatist subcultures?

• individuals have no opportunity or ability to engage in either of the other two subcultures

• individuals are “double failures”

• a retreat into alcohol or drugs

• spending time with others who have dropped out of society in a similar way

What are the key aspects of Cohen’s subcultural theory?

• addresses questions about why groups commit crimes

• addresses questions about why individuals commit non-utilitarian (not financially motivated) crimes

• deviants conform to norms and values, they just happen to be different to those of the rest of society

• working class boys often initially share the same goals of mainstream culture, but end up in dead end jobs due to educational failure

• working class boys have little opportunity to attain the goals of mainstream culture

According to Cohen, what is lower class boys’ response to failure at school?

• the formation of subcultures or gangs

• inverting or reversing the values of school

• what was deemed taboo or deviant in mainstream society was praiseworthy and a way of gaining status in the subculture

• truanting, answering teachers back, destroying property/vandalism, etc.

What did Cohen’s subcultural theory seek to explain?

• delinquency among groups in society (e.g., young, working class males)

• non-utilitarian crimes

What are some criticisms of Cohen’s subcultural theory?

• Cohen has been criticised for his suggestion that members of delinquent subcultures consciously invert the norms and values of mainstream society

• e.g., if an individual decides to vandalise a bush shelter, it seems unlikely that they have consciously thought that mainstream society would consider this act unacceptable

• postmodernist sociologists like Lyng and Katz argue that individuals are more likely influenced by boredom

• Cohen does not truly link his theory much to gender

• feminists might expect girls to also form deviant subcultures if status frustration causes deviance

What are the key aspects of Merton’s strain theory?

• developed the idea of anomie

• in disagreement with functionalists that all institutions benefit everyone

• a strain between socially accepted goals and social approved means (ways of achieving goals)

• when individuals cannot achieve socially accepted goals, it can result in criminal behaviour

What is the American Dream?

• a belief in the United States of America

• the opportunity to achieve material success through hard success

• embodies the idea that anyone can obtain a better life, regardless of background

What are the 5 adaptations to strain?

• conformity

• innovation

• ritualism

• retreatism

• rebellion

What is conformity?

goals

means

• accepting the goals

• accepting the means

What is innovation?

goals

means

• accepting the goals

• finding different means to achieve the goals

• common in lower social classes due to lower chance of succeeding

What is ritualism?

goals

means

• lost sight of/do not accept the goals

• accepting the means

• immersed in daily routines and regulations at work

What is retreatism?

goals

means

• rejecting the goals

• rejecting the means

• fails to achieve success

• likely to drop out and depend on drugs or alcohol

What is rebellion?

goals

means

• rejecting the goals

• rejecting the means

• substitutes different goals and means

• deciding society no longer works well and needs to be radically changed

What are some criticisms of Merton’s strain theory?

• criticised by Valier (2001) for the stress on the existence of common goals in society

• there are a variety of goals that individuals wish to attain

• individuals may prioritise a happy family life or leisure over financial success

• Taylor, Walton & Young argue that Merton underestimates the amount of middle and upper class crime while overestimating the amount of working class crime

According to Hirschi, what are the four types of social bonds?

• attachment

• commitment

• involvement

• belief

What is the social bond of attachment?

• strong attachments to conventional social institutions (e.g., family, school, work)

• emotional attachments to parents, friends, teachers, etc.

• deviance may jeopardise an individual’s relationships

• fear of losing others’ respect and affection

• level of sensitivity to others’ opinions

What is the social bond of commitment?

• a strong commitment to conventional goals and activities (e.g., educational or career aspirations)

• personal investments in conventional lifestyles and achievements

• reluctancy to risk not achieving goals

• the risk of law enforcement officials or school authorities finding out about behaviour

What is the social bond of involvement?

• heavy involvement in conventional activities and social interactions

• having less time and opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour

• sports, hobbies, or community service occupying individuals’ time and energy

What is the social bond of belief?

• strongly adhere to conventional norms and values

• a deterrent to deviance

• internalise values

• feel obliged to abide by values

What are some criticisms of Hirschi’s bonds of attachment?

• does not really address the issue of why some members have secure bonds of attachment and others are marginalised

• Marxists and feminists argue that there is not a value consensus that benefits everyone

• society is characteristed by conflict

According to Durkheim, what four functions do crime and deviance perform for society?

• boundary maintenance

• social change

• safety valve

• warning device

What is boundary maintenance?

• keeping a clear line between what’s considered acceptable and unacceptable in society

• maintaining social order and solidarity

• defining and upholding the shared moral code of society

• preventing others from committing crimes

• reinforcing the collective consciousness and social cohesion

What is an example of boundary maintenance?

the publicity surrounding court cases and punishments acting as a deterrent from committing crimes

What is social change?

• society responding positively to deviant behaviour

• deviant behaviour becoming normal and accepted

• alterations in the law

• incremental, organic change

What is an example of social change?

the LGBTQ+ community becoming more widely accepted and gay marriage being legalised

What is a safety valve?

• deviance acting as a safety valve for society

• individuals releasing tension without damaging society

What are some examples of a safety valve?

• prostitution releases men’s sexual tension without damaging the nuclear family

• substance misuse (e.g., drugs, alcohol) releases tension

What is a warning device?

• making those responsible aware that institutions are not functioning effectively

• requiring those responsible to take action

What is an example of a warning device?

child abuse warns social services and emergency services that they are not functioning effectively