Chapter 30: The Vietnam Era

Daniel Ellsberg

A former Defense Department official who handed over a collection of secret government documents to the New York Times. His actions revealed that presidents and their advisers had made decisions about the war without Congressional approval and that officials had misled both Congress and the public about the conflict in Vietnam.

General William Westmoreland

American military commander in Vietnam who oversaw the strategy of search-and-destroy missions and large-scale bombing campaigns. After a major enemy offensive shocked the nation, he requested even more troops, a decision that contributed to growing doubts about the direction of the war.

Henry Kissinger

A skilled diplomat appointed as National Security Adviser by President Nixon. He was given broad authority to negotiate an end to the war, led peace talks in Paris with North Vietnam, and developed a strategy of improving relations with the Soviet Union and China in hopes of cutting off their support for North Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh

Communist leader of North Vietnam whose nationalist forces fought first against Japanese occupation, then against the French, and finally against the United States and South Vietnam. He inspired a determined resistance movement and argued that North Vietnam could outlast its enemies in a long war.

John F. Kennedy

35th president of the United States who expanded U.S. involvement in Vietnam by sending Special Forces advisers and introducing the Flexible Response strategy to counter Communist influence around the world before his assassination in 1963.

Lyndon B. Johnson

President who took office after Kennedy’s assassination and dramatically escalated U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. He secured broad war powers from Congress, launched major bombing campaigns, and sent hundreds of thousands of troops to Southeast Asia.

Ngo Dinh Diem

U.S.-backed leader of South Vietnam who refused to hold the nationwide elections called for by the Geneva Accords, cracked down on political opponents and Buddhists, and was overthrown and assassinated in 1963.

Nikita Khrushchev

Leader of the Soviet Union during the early 1960s who clashed repeatedly with President Kennedy during Cold War crises including the Berlin Wall and Cuban Missile Crisis.

Richard Nixon

President who took office in 1969 promising “peace with honor” in Vietnam. He introduced Vietnamization, expanded bombing into Cambodia and Laos, and negotiated the 1973 peace agreement ending direct American military involvement.

Robert F. Kennedy

Senator from New York and former attorney general who entered the 1968 Democratic primary as an antiwar candidate before being assassinated after winning the California primary.

Robert McNamara

Secretary of Defense under President Johnson who initially supported escalation in Vietnam but later privately concluded that the war could not be won.

Election of 1968

Turbulent presidential election shaped by the Vietnam War, political assassinations, and social unrest. Richard Nixon won after appealing to Americans seeking law and order.

France

Colonial power that controlled Indochina and fought a long war against Vietnamese independence forces before being defeated in 1954.

Geneva Accords

1954 peace agreement that temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel and called for nationwide elections in 1956.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

Reported 1964 attack on American naval vessels by North Vietnamese patrol boats that gave President Johnson support for expanding the war.

A presidential assassination shifts Vietnam policy

Event on November 22, 1963, when President Kennedy was assassinated, transferring responsibility for Vietnam policy to Lyndon B. Johnson.

Kent State University

Ohio university where National Guard troops shot student protesters during antiwar demonstrations in May 1970, killing four students.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Civil rights leader whose assassination in 1968 triggered riots across the country and deepened national tensions during the Vietnam era.

Operation Rolling Thunder

Massive bombing campaign launched by the United States in 1965 against North Vietnam and the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

Peace agreement signed

January 27, 1973 agreement in which the United States withdrew its troops and North Vietnam agreed to return American prisoners of war.

Pentagon Papers

Secret Defense Department documents leaked to the New York Times that revealed government officials had misled the public about the Vietnam War.

Saigon falls

Event on April 30, 1975, when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon, ending the Vietnam War and reunifying Vietnam under Communist rule.

Tet Offensive

Massive surprise attack launched by North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces in 1968 that shocked the American public and weakened support for the war.

Agent Orange

Chemical herbicide sprayed by the U.S. military to destroy jungle cover in Vietnam that later caused serious health problems for veterans and civilians.

Alliance for Progress

Foreign aid program created by President Kennedy to promote economic development in Latin America and reduce support for communism.

Draft lottery reform

Nixon-era changes to the draft system that used a random lottery based on birthdays and reduced deferments to make the draft appear fairer.

Flexible Response

Kennedy’s military strategy that expanded conventional and special military forces so the United States could respond to smaller Cold War conflicts without relying only on nuclear weapons.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Congressional resolution passed in 1964 giving the president broad authority to use military force in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repealed

Congressional action in 1970 that removed the broad war powers previously granted to the president after growing anger over the Vietnam War.

Linkage

Diplomatic strategy developed by Henry Kissinger that aimed to improve relations with the Soviet Union and China in hopes they would pressure North Vietnam toward peace.

Napalm

Highly flammable chemical weapon used during the Vietnam War that caused devastating burns and became a symbol of the war’s brutality.

Nixon Doctrine

Foreign policy stating that the United States would honor defense commitments but expect allies to take primary responsibility for their own military defense.

Peace Corps

Volunteer program created in 1961 that sent Americans abroad to work as teachers, health workers, and advisers in developing nations.

Vietnamization

Nixon’s strategy of gradually withdrawing American troops while shifting more fighting responsibilities to South Vietnamese forces.

Blockade

Military tactic using naval forces to prevent ships from entering or leaving an area, famously used during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Cold War

Long period of political and military rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union that shaped American foreign policy during the Vietnam era.

Communism

Political and economic system in which the government controls the means of production and aims to distribute resources equally among citizens.

Conscientious objector

Person who refuses military service because of moral, ethical, or religious beliefs.

Counterculture

Social movement during the 1960s in which many young people rejected traditional American values and often opposed the Vietnam War.

Credibility gap

Growing distrust caused by differences between what the Johnson administration said publicly about the war and what Americans believed was actually happening.

Deferment

Official postponement of military service, often granted to college students during the Vietnam War.

Domino Theory

Belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would soon follow.

Draft / Selective Service

Government system requiring men to register for possible military service.

Escalation

Gradual increase in military involvement and intensity of war, especially under President Johnson in Vietnam.

Generation gap

Differences in beliefs and values between younger and older Americans that became especially visible during the Vietnam era.

Green Berets / Special Forces

Elite U.S. Army units trained in guerrilla warfare and counterinsurgency operations.

Guerrilla warfare

Fighting style using ambushes, raids, and surprise attacks instead of traditional large-scale battles.

Hawks vs. Doves

Terms describing supporters of aggressive military action in Vietnam (hawks) and opponents favoring negotiation or withdrawal (doves).

Ho Chi Minh Trail

Network of roads and jungle paths through Laos and Cambodia used by North Vietnam to move troops and supplies into South Vietnam.

Martial law

Emergency rule by military authorities that can suspend normal civilian laws and rights.

MIA

“Missing in Action,” military designation for service members whose fate is unknown after combat.

Search-and-destroy missions

Military strategy in which U.S. troops searched for enemy forces and then used heavy firepower to attack them.

Vietcong

Communist guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam who fought against the South Vietnamese government and American forces.

1965–1973

Years of major American combat involvement in the Vietnam War.

April 30, 1975

Date marking the fall of Saigon and the final end of the Vietnam War.