Social Psychology Exam 3

The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends is called the _____.

Propinquity Effect

How does 'functional distance' differ from physical distance in the propinquity effect?

It refers to aspects of architectural design that determine which people you cross paths with most often.

According to the Mere Exposure Effect, what is the typical relationship between the frequency of exposure to a stimulus and our liking of it?

Increased exposure generally leads to increased liking.

What are the two primary psychological reasons that familiarity (mere exposure) leads to liking?

It reduces uncertainty and increases perceptual fluency.

In the context of interpersonal attraction, what does the term 'homophily' refer to?

The tendency for people to be attracted to others who are similar to themselves.

The idea that people tend to form relationships with others who are similar to them in physical attractiveness is known as the _____.

Matching Hypothesis

How does reciprocal liking affect our attraction to someone even if we disagree on important issues?

Knowing someone likes us can be powerful enough to make up for a lack of similarity.

When evaluating potential sexual partners, how do men and women differ in their rating of the importance of physical attractiveness?

Both genders rate physical attractiveness as the most important factor for sexual desire.

According to research by Cunningham (1986), what specific facial features are associated with high attractiveness in females?

Large eyes, small nose, small chin, prominent cheekbones, large pupils, and a large smile.

Which two male facial features are associated with both 'baby-face' warmth and sexual maturity?

Large eyes (baby-face) and prominent cheekbones (maturity).

What is the primary evolutionary explanation for why humans across cultures prefer symmetrical faces?

Symmetry is perceived as a marker of good health and reproductive fitness.

The cognitive bias where we assume that an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other unrelated positive traits is the _____.

Halo Effect

How might the 'what is beautiful is good' stereotype act as a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Beautiful people receive more social attention, which helps them develop better social skills.

According to Triver's parental investment theory, why are females more selective in choosing a mate than males?

Reproduction is more biologically costly and time-consuming for females.

In David Buss's evolutionary approach, what do women primarily look for in a male partner?

Resources and the capacity to support her and her offspring.

Term: Close Relationships

Definition: Relationships characterized by loving, caring, commitment, and intimacy, such as adult friends or married couples.

What is the definition of 'reciprocal self-disclosure' in the context of intimacy?

The tendency to communicate frequently and openly without fear of reprisal in an empathetic manner.

How does 'perceived partner responsiveness' differ from 'social support'?

It is the general sense that a partner understands and cares for you, rather than just the provision of advice or assistance.

In Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love, what are the three main components of love?

Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment.

According to Sternberg, what type of love is defined by the presence of intimacy and affection without passion or physiological arousal?

Companionate Love

What is 'Consummate Love' in the context of Sternberg's Triangular Theory?

A type of love that blends all three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Attachment Styles are defined as _____ about relationships, developed based on early interactions with caregivers.

Schemas

Which attachment style is characterized by trust, a lack of concern about abandonment, and the view that one is worthy and well-liked?

Secure Attachment Style

How does an 'anxious/ambivalent' attachment style typically manifest in adult relationships?

With a high concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in high anxiety.

People with an _____ attachment style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships because previous attempts were rebuffed.

Avoidant

Social Exchange Theory posits that relationship satisfaction is determined by a _____ analysis.

Cost-Benefit

In Social Exchange Theory, what is the 'Comparison Level'?

The expectations people have about the level of rewards and costs they deserve in a relationship.

In Social Exchange Theory, what does 'Comparison Level for Alternatives' predict?

The likelihood that a person will leave a relationship based on the prospect of finding a better partner.

State the basic formula for Satisfaction according to Social Exchange Theory.

$Satisfaction = (Rewards - Costs) - Comparison Level$

According to Rusbult's Investment Model, what is an 'investment' in a relationship?

Anything a person puts into a relationship that would be lost if they left, such as time, shared property, or children.

State the formula for Commitment according to the Investment Model.

Commitment = (Satisfaction - Comparison Level For Alternatives) + Investment Level

What is the core tenet of Equity Theory regarding relationship stability?

Relationships are most stable and happy when the rewards and costs for both partners are roughly equal.

How do 'Exchange Relationships' differ from 'Communal Relationships' regarding the need for equity?

Exchange relationships are governed by the need for immediate repayment, whereas communal relationships focus on responsiveness to needs over time.

What is the 'Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects' (SIDE)?

A theory suggesting that immersion in a group can heighten one's sense of self as a group member and increase adherence to group norms.

Term: Conformity

Definition: Changing one’s behavior or beliefs in response to explicit or implicit pressure from others.

The phenomenon where we conform to others because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior is called _____.

Informational Social Influence

Under what condition did Sherif's (1936) autokinetic effect study find that people's estimates converged?

When they were placed in a group with others and gave their estimates out loud.

What is 'Private Acceptance' in the context of conformity?

Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.

How does 'Public Compliance' differ from Private Acceptance?

Public compliance involves conforming to others' behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what they are doing.

According to research by Baron et al. (1996), how does the importance of a task affect informational social influence when the situation is ambiguous?

High importance increases the likelihood of conforming to informational influence.

The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd is known as _____.

Contagion

What are the three specific conditions that make people more likely to conform to informational social influence?

When the situation is ambiguous, when the situation is a crisis, and when others are experts.

We conform to _____ social influence when we change our behavior to be liked and accepted by others.

Normative

What was the primary finding of Asch's (1951) line judgment studies?

Participants conformed to the group's obviously wrong answer about 33% of the time to avoid social disapproval.

What is the key difference between the stimuli used in Sherif's study and Asch's study regarding conformity?

Sherif used an ambiguous stimulus (autokinetic effect), while Asch used an unambiguous stimulus (line lengths).

According to Social Impact Theory, what three factors determine the likelihood of conforming to social influence?

Strength, Immediacy, and Number.

In Social Impact Theory, what does 'Strength' refer to?

The importance of the group to the person being influenced.

As group size increases, normative social influence increases until the group reaches approximately _____ members.

Four

What are 'Idiosyncrasy Credits'?

The tolerance a person earns over time by conforming to group norms, which later allows them to deviate without reprisal.

How does having an ally affect conformity in normative social influence situations?

Having even one ally who disagrees with the group drastically reduces conformity.

Distinguish between 'Injunctive Norms' and 'Descriptive Norms'.

Injunctive norms are perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of; descriptive norms are perceptions of how people actually behave.

Which type of norm is generally more powerful in producing desirable social behavior?

Injunctive Norms

The 'Foot-in-the-door' technique works by starting with a _____ request followed by a _____ request.

Small; Larger

The 'Door-in-the-face' technique relies on the principle of _____ concessions.

Reciprocal

In Milgram’s original obedience study, what percentage of participants went all the way to the 450-volt shock?

65%

What role does 'self-justification' play in increasing obedience in Milgram's study?

Participants justify small, incremental increases in shocks, making it harder to stop later (slippery slope).

Define a 'Group' according to social psychology.

Three or more people who interact and are interdependent such that their goals and needs influence each other.

The degree to which a collection of individuals is perceived as 'group-like' is known as _____.

Entitativity

What is the function of 'Social Roles' within a group?

They define shared expectations about how specific people in the group are supposed to behave.

Term: Group Cohesiveness

Definition: Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote mutual liking.

The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks in the presence of others is called _____.

Social Facilitation

According to Zajonc, why does the presence of others improve performance on simple tasks?

It causes arousal, which strengthens the dominant (correct) response for easy tasks.

What are the three main theories for why the presence of others causes psychological arousal?

Mere presence (alertness), Evaluation apprehension, and Distraction-conflict.

Term: Social Loafing

Definition: The tendency for people to relax and slack off in the presence of others when their individual performance cannot be evaluated.

How does the task difficulty influence the outcome of Social Loafing?

People perform worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are relaxed (loafing).

_____ is a reduced sense of individual identity and diminished self-regulation that occurs when people are in large groups.

Deindividuation

What is the primary psychological mechanism behind deindividuation according to the theoretical model?

Anonymity leads to a diffusion of responsibility and lessened self-observation.

The theory that focusing attention on the self leads people to act in accordance with their internal standards is called _____.

Self-Awareness Theory

Term: Process Loss

Definition: Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem-solving or decision-making.

The combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual is known as _____.

Transactive Memory

What is 'Groupthink'?

A situation where maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts realistically.

List three methods to avoid Groupthink in a decision-making body.

The leader should remain impartial, seek outside opinions, and assign a devil's advocate.

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members is called _____.

Group Polarization

Explain the 'Persuasive Arguments' account of group polarization.

Members are exposed to new arguments that support their initial position, reinforcing and shifting their views toward the extreme.

Explain the 'Social Comparison' interpretation of group polarization.

Individuals shift to a more extreme position to differentiate themselves positively and align with the perceived group norm.

A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone is a _____.

Social Dilemma

What is the 'Tit-for-Tat' strategy in the Prisoner's Dilemma game?

A means of encouraging cooperation by first acting cooperatively and then always mimicking the opponent's previous move.

In general, who tends to be more cooperative: individuals or groups?

Individuals

According to uncertainty-identity theory, why do we join groups?

Groups help define who we are and reduce uncertainty about our place in the world.

In the matching hypothesis, the causal arrow between similarity and attraction is believed to go _____.

Both ways (we are attracted to similar people, and we become more similar to those we like).

What is 'ideomotor action' in the context of automatic mimicry?

The phenomenon where merely thinking about a behavior makes performing it more likely.

What are the two 'baby-face' features that make us feel warm and nurturing toward an attractive person?

Large eyes and a small nose/chin.

The 'overgeneralization hypothesis' suggests we mistakenly link attractiveness with _____ fitness.

Reproductive (or biological)

Under Social Exchange Theory, what is the term for expectations about what one deserves in a relationship?

Comparison Level

Which norm motivates behavior by promising rewards or punishments for adherence?

Injunctive Norms

According to the slide on Groupthink, what is the 'motivation' that leads to defective decision-making?

Concurrence Seeking

In the study on Halloween by Diener et al. (1976), which group of children was most likely to transgress (steal candy)?

Those who were both anonymous and in a group.