AP Psych Ultimate Review

Wilhelm Wundt

First psychology lab; introspection.

Edward Titchener

Developed structuralism.

William James

Pioneer of functionalism.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Conducted memory research; first female APA president.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalytic theory; focused on the unconscious mind.

Ivan Pavlov

Known for classical conditioning.

John B. Watson

Founder of behaviorism.

B.F. Skinner

Developed operant conditioning.

Carl Rogers

Founding figure of humanistic psychology; emphasized unconditional positive regard.

Abraham Maslow

Created the hierarchy of needs.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement and memory; too little associated with Alzheimer's.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with reward and movement; too little can lead to Parkinson's.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that regulates mood; low levels can lead to depression.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that regulates alertness; linked to depressed mood and anxiety.

GABA

Calming neurotransmitter; low levels can lead to seizures and sleep issues.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that help relieve pain; too much can reduce natural production.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction.

Theory

Framework that explains behaviors or events.

Independent Variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The measured outcome in an experiment.

Control Group

Comparison group that does not receive treatment.

Experimental Group

Group that receives treatment.

Random Assignment

Method that gives each participant an equal chance to be placed in any group.

Double-Blind Procedure

Study design where both participants and researchers are unaware of the conditions.

Placebo Effect

Change in a participant's behavior due to their expectations.

Confounding Variable

An unwanted influence that can affect the results of an experiment.

Operational Definition

Specific description of the procedures used in research.

Central Nervous System

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Branch of the nervous system that includes somatic and autonomic systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that triggers fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic system responsible for calming the body.

Frontal Lobe

Brain area responsible for decision-making and personality.

Occipital Lobe

Region of the brain responsible for vision.

Cochlea

Structure in the ear that aids in hearing.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.

Classical Conditioning

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, including reinforcement and punishment.

Long-Term Memory

Type of memory that can store information indefinitely.

Social Learning Theory

Theory that suggests behavior is learned through observing others.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Theory that categorizes human needs into a hierarchy.

Stress

A psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Eight stages through which a healthy developing individual should pass from infancy to late adulthood.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

Punishment

Introducing a consequence to decrease a behavior.

Emotion Theories

Various explanations of how physiological reactions and feelings correlate.

Psychological Disorders

Clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Study by Bandura showing observational learning.

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep.

REM Sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreams.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Neuroplasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize itself.

Circadian rhythm

24-hour biological internal clock.

REM sleep

Sleep stage for dreaming.

Sleep apnea

Breathing pauses during sleep.

Hallucinations

Perception without external stimulus.

Parallel processing

Simultaneous processing of multiple stimuli.

Prosocial behavior

Positive actions toward others.

Reciprocity norm

Expectation to return favors.

Learned helplessness

Belief that one cannot change outcomes.

Internal locus of control

Belief in personal control over events.

External locus of control

Belief in external factors controlling events.

Resilience

Ability to recover from difficulties.

Positive reinforcement

Adding stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing stimulus to increase behavior.

Punishment

Adding consequence to decrease behavior.

Confirmation bias

Favoring information that confirms beliefs.

Availability heuristic

Judging based on immediate examples.

Representative heuristic

Judging by similarities to prototypes.

Overconfidence

Excessive certainty in one's abilities.

Framing

Influencing perceptions through presentation.

Fundamental attribution error

Overemphasizing personality in others' behavior.

Self-serving bias

Attributing successes to self, failures externally.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Social facilitation

Improved performance in group settings.

Social loafing

Reduced effort in group work.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Group polarization

Intensified group opinions after discussion.

Diffusion of responsibility

Diminished sense of responsibility in groups.

Aaron Beck

Pioneer of cognitive therapy techniques.

Cognitive restructuring

Changing harmful thought patterns.

Free association

Therapeutic technique for exploring thoughts.

DSM-5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Medical model

Focus on biological factors of illness.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.

Diathesis-stress model

Predisposition triggered by stressors.

Reciprocal determinism

Behavior influenced by personal and environmental factors.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's abilities to succeed.

Fluid intelligence

Ability to solve novel problems.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge gained from experience and education.

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound in language.

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning in language.

Proactive interference

Old information disrupts new learning.

Retroactive interference

New information disrupts old learning.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into memory.

Primacy effect

Better recall of early items.

Recency effect

Better recall of recent items.

Chunking

Grouping information for easier recall.

Mnemonics

Memory aids or strategies for remembering.