anatomy 1 exam

Know the following direction-related terms: anterior/posterior; superior/inferior; proximal/distal; rostral/caudal

Anterior/posterior: front/back

Superior/inferior: above(higher)/below(lower)

Proximal/distal: closer to attachment/away from attachment

Rostral/caudal: closer to head and nose/closer to back and tail

Know the different type of neurons in the PNS and CNS, as well as their function

Types: sensory, motor, interneurons
Sensory neurons: bringing messages; take external stimuli/impulses from receptors to CNS; afferent
Motor neurons: listening to messages and directing them where to go; impulses from CNS to effectors (muscled and glands); efferent
Interneurons: integration; relay messages between other neurons, sensory or motor

Structural classifications: multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
Multipolar: possess more than 2 processes; numerous dendrites, 1 axon; most abundant in body; major neuron type in CNS; most interneurons, some motor
Bipolar: possesses 2 processes; rare neurons (found in some special sensory organs; olfactory mucosa, eyes, ear); fused dendrite and axon; most sensory
Unipolar: possess one shy, single process; starts as bipolar neurons during development; found mainly in PNS; most sensory

Know the different type of glial (aka neuroglia) cells in the PNS and CNS, as well as their function

Neuoglia in CNS:
Astrocytes: most abundant glial cell type; sense when neurons release glutamate; extract blood sugar from capillaries for energy; take up and relate ions to control environment around neurons; involved in synapse formation in developing tissue; produce molecules necessary for neuronal growth (BDTF); propagate calcium signals involve with memory
Microglia: smallest and least abundant; phagocytes (macrophages of CNS) engulf invading microorganisms/dead neurons; derive from blood cells called monocytes; migrate to CNS during embryonic/fetal periods
Ependymal cells: line central cavity of spinal cord; bear cilia (helps circulate CSF)
Oligodendrocytes: wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS; produce myelin sheaths in CNS

PNS:
Satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia
Schwann cells (neurolemocytes): surrounds axons in the PNS; form myelin sheath around axons of PNS

Know the organizational structure of skeletal muscles

Out to in:
epimysium (separates muscle from nearby tissues and organs; creates dense layer of collagen fibers that surround entire muscle)
fascicle (creates bundle of muscle fibers; blood and nerve supply)
perimysium (divides the muscle into a Sirius of compartments; surrounds fascicles; blood and nerve supply)
endomysium (surrounds individual skeletal muscle cells called muscle fibers and loosely interconnects adjacent muscle fibers; creates muscle fibers and repairs damaged muscle tissue through myosatellite cells)
myofibril (produces skeletal movement, maintains posture and body position, supports soft tissues, guards entrances and exits, maintains body temperature, and stores nutrient reserves)

Understand how a neuron interacts with a skeletal muscle fiber to cause a contraction; know the importance of the neuromuscular junction

Neuromuscular junction: where nerve ending and muscle fibers meet

a neuron interacts with a muscle fiber to contract in the synaptic cleft, which is the area between the axon terminal of a neuron and the sarcolemma (the plasme membrane of muscle cells). the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the neuron, through the synaptic cleft, and binds to muscle receptors to generate action potential for the muscle contraction to occur

Know the two types of bone ossification, and when each occurs during growth and development; which bones are developed through each physiological method

Intramembranous ossification: membrane bones formed directly from mesenchyme; only happens in embryonic development with skull, mandible, and clavicles (flat bones); doesn't happen throughout life; no medullary cavities, just trabeculae
Endochondral ossification: other bones develop initially from hyaline cartilage (template bets replaced with bone); also occurs in second month of embryonic development, but happens throughout life; all bones except some of skull and clavicles

Know the difference compact and spongy bone, including location of each. Where would you expect to find red bone marrow?

Two types of bone found in every bone
Compact bone: dense outer layer of bone
Spongy (cancellous) bone: internal network of bone

Red bone marrow found between trabeculae (little "beams" of bone) of spongy bone and within epiphysis of long bone

Know the Clinical significance of the following: osteoporosis, osteomalacia, osteosarcoma, and arthritis

Osteoporosis: low bone mass; bone reabsorption outpaces bone deposition; osteoclasts break down bone faster than osteoblasts can replace/make new matrix; in most women after menopause (secretion of estrogens maintains bone density)

Osteomalacia: in adults, bones inadequately mineralized

Osteosarcoma: form of bone cancer

Arthritis: 100+ kinds of joint-damaging diseases
- osteoarthritis: most common; "wear and tear"
- rheumatoid arthritis: chronic inflammatory disorder
- gouty arthritis: Uris acid buildup causes pain in joints

Know the Clinical significance of atherosclerosis. How is this formed?

Atherosclerosis: lipid forms in wall of endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, gets in between, and grows; makes Lauren smaller like a clog; plaque gets so big and ruptures; leads to clot and can block artery

Know the paired and unpaired bones of the skull

Cranial
Paired: temporal and parietal bones
Unpaired: frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid

Facial
Paired: maxillae (upper jaw), zygomatic bones (cheek bones), nasal bones (top of bridge of nose), lacrimal bones (inner eye bones), palatine bones (roof of mouth bones), inferior nasal conclave (inside nasal cavity)
Unpaired: mandible and vomer

Within the meninges, where would you find cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)? How is CSF "produced?" How is CSF recycled back into the blood? What is the importance of the choroid plexus? Where is it located?

CSF found in the ventricles of the brain and the space between the pia matter and the arachnoid

CSF produced by the choroid plexus, then circulates through the ventricles, the cisterns, and the subarachnoid space to be absorbed into the blood by the arachnid villi

Choroid plexus: network of capillaries and specialized ependymal cells found in the cerebral ventricles of the brain; serves two roles for the body: produced CSF and provides a toxin barrier to the brain and other CNS tissue

Know the Clinical significance of hydrocephalus and meningitis. What causes these conditions? How are they diagnosed? How are they treated?

Hydrocephalus: accumulation of excess CSF within ventricular system either from overproduced CSF of decreases reabsorption; most commonly in children; Magee pressure with shunt in ventricles

Meningitis: inflammation of meninges; through bacterial or viral vector in CSF; L1-L2 (where spinal cord ends) cathader goes in where subarachnoid space and collect CSF to look for markers; treatable if a viral; antibiotic that can cross blood-brain barrier if bacterial

Know the Clinical significance of brain tumors.

Can grow in several locations
Symptoms depend on size and location
Most do not metastasize (release cancerous cells)

How could the facial artery and cavernous sinus be involved in the development of encephalitis or meningitis?

Blood from the medial angle of the eye, lips, and nose usually drain via the facial vein. However, blood from these parts may also drain superiorly through the facial vein, to the superior ophthalmic, to the cavernous sinus

Know all cranial nerves (CN), their location, function, and if they are categorized as being motor, sensory, or both regarding function

CN1: Olfactory nerve; Sensory; smell
CN2: Optic nerve; sensory; vision
CN3: oculomotor nerve; motor; movement of eyes
CN4: Trochlear; motor; muscle of eye
CN5: Trigeminal; sensory and motor; Ophthalmic branch, maxillary branch, mandibular branch
CN6: Abducens; motor; specific eye muscle
CN7: Facial Nerve; motor; facial expression
CN8: Vestibulocochlear nerve; sensory; balance/position and hearing
CN9: Glossopharyngeal nerve; sensory and motor; tongue and pharynx
CN10: Vagus nerve; sensory and motor; digestive system
CN11: Accessory nerve; motor; muscles like trapezius and sterno
CN12: Hypoglossal nerve; motor; goes though hypoglossal canal

Know the names, locations, and innervation for all mimetic muscles (Spoiler alert: they are ALL innervated by CN VII- facial nerve)

4 muscle groups:
Scalp
Region of eyelid
Nasal region
Mouth region

What is the Clinical significance of the TMJ?

An umbrella term used to describe acute or chronic pain in mystification muscles or the temporomandibular joint

Know the location and innervations of the salivary glands.

Parotid gland, submandibular gland, and sublingual gland

Produce saliva, releasing it in the oral cavity through ducts (parotid (Stenson's) duct)

Receive parasympathetic inner action from superior and inferior salivatory nuclei through CN7 and CN9

What is the sensory innervation of the face?

Trigeminal nerve (CN5) from the three branches (ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular)

What are the seven bones that form the eye orbit?

Frontal
Zygomatic
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Lacrimal
Maxilla
Nasal

What is the lacrimal apparatus, and where is it located?

Lacrimal gland (located anterloteral) produces tears which collect on medial side of the eye, through punctuation lacrimal is (openings on the inner side of the lids), passing into lacrimal canal

Collected tears flow into lacrimal sac which extends from nasolacrimal duct to the inferior meats of the nose

Always located superio-lateral

What are the names, locations, and innervations for the extraocular muscles?

Superior rectus
Inferior rectus
Inferior oblique
Medial oblique
Superior oblique
Lateral
- all but 2 innervated by CN3

Know all the structures of the eye: external, and within the anterior and posterior chambers

Cornea: anterior surface; transparent
Lens: posterior to iris which has central opening, the pupil
Optic nerve: posterior; medical to optical acids
Anterior and posterior chambers: bordered by cornea, iris and the lens, clear fluid Aqueous humor (Anterior); lies behind lens, contains Vitreous Body, jelly like contains water (posterior)
Sclera: dense taut collective tissue of collagen and elastic fibers; maintains shape of eyeball with intraocular pressure
Urea: contains blood vessels; forms the iris and ciliary body in the anterior chamber and the choroid in the interior chamber; pigment within iris giving eye color (high, brown; low, blue/green)
Macula: region of greatest visual acuity, yellowish in color and has a central pit (fovea centralis)

Know the Clinical significance of the following: Horner's Syndrome, Direct and Consensual Light Reflex, Glaucoma, and Cataracts

Horner's: damage/compromise to CN3,4,6; mitosis (constricted pupil), partial ptosis, loss of hemifacial sweating

Direct and Consensual: constriction of ipsilateral and contralateral pupil when a light is shone into one eye; shows the function of CN3 and also the optic pathway; reflexes may be lost in head trauma

Glaucoma: optic neuropathy, retinal ganglion cell loss, and blindness due to impaired drainage of the aqueous humor form the Schlemm's canal; leads to increased introcular pressure and increased retinal blood flow

Cataracts: progressive degeneration and opacity of the lends which leads to impaired vision and blindness; due to the deposition of aggregated proteins

Know the names, locations, and innervations of the muscles of mastication

Masseter
Temporalis
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid
*study guide for origin, insertion, function, innervation

Know the location and function of the paranasal sinuses

Frontal sinus: drains into the middle meatus via frontonasal duct
Ethmoidal air cells: in ethmoidal labyrinth between orbit and nasal cavities,3 sets
- posterior cells: drain into superior meatus
- anterior cells: drain into middle meatus
- middle cells: drain on or above ethmoidal bull in middle meatus
Sphenoidal sinus: drains into sphenoethmoidal recess
Maxillary sinus: largest, in maxilla, drains into semilunar hiatus of the middle meatus

Know the contents of the middle and inner ear

Middle ear (tympanic cavity):
- lateral and medial borders
- vestibular window
- cochlear window
- roof
- floor
- anterior
- posterior/mastoid wall
- auditory ossicles
*study guide for more info

What is the location, innervation and function of the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles? Which is important in the development of hypercusis?

Tesor tympani
- insertion: handle of malleus
- Innervation: trigeminal nerve mandibular branch
- function: tends the tympanic membrane

Stapedius
- insertion: neck (head) of stapes
- innervation: facial nerve
- function: levers the foot plate of stapes out of the oval window and dampens the sound transmission

Facial nerve paralysis: causes loss of function of stapedius muscle and loss of dampening sound stimuli, leading to Hyperacusis (an I screamed sensitivity to sound)

What is the Clinical significance of Otis externa and Chronic Otitis media? How is a myringotomy used to treat the later of the two conditions?

Otitis externa: a condition that causes inflammation of the external ear canal, which is the tube between the outer ear and eardrum

Chronic otitis media (COM): chronic infection of the middle ear vanity cause by an ongoing inflammatory response within the middle ear and is typically associated with unresolved and resistant bacterial infections

Myringotomy: an incision made through the tympanic membrane to insert a tube for drainage of secretions and pus in severe and/or chronic cases of otitis media

Within the inner ear, what structure is considered the organ of balance? Which is considered the organ of hearing?

Sacculus, utriculus, and the 3 semicircular ducts form the organ of balance (vestibular apparatus); all register acceleration and changes in the position, and therefore, orientation in space

Cochlea is organ of hearing; organ of corti; located in the cochlear duct, filled with endolymph; above the duct lies the scala vestibule and low is the scala tympani, both of which contain perilymph

Know the clinical significance of the following: Cleft palate and Cleft lip.

Plate: failure of fusion of the lateral process, the nasal septum, and/or median palatine process; surgery required

Lip: failure of fusion of the maxillary and medial pascal processes leading to persistent labial

Know the locations and innervations of the following muscles: sternocleidomastoid, infrahyoid muscles, suprahyoid muscles, genioglossus, styloglossus, and hyoglossus

STUDY GUIDE

What is the location, function, and hormones produced by the thyroid and parathyroid glands?

STUDY GUIDE

What are the names, functions, and locations of the paravertebral muscles?

Rectus capitis: helps to flex the head; innervated by cervical plexus (C10

Longus capitis: bends head forward and unilateral action turns the head sideways; innervated by cervical plexus (C1-C4)

Longus colli: unilateral contraction bends and turns cervical column to the side; bends the cervical spine forward; innervated by cervical and brachial plexus (C2-C8)

Know

Know the blood supply and drainage of the head and neck.

Artery: away from heart
Vein: toward heart

Common carotid arteries
- internal carotid artery
- external carotid artery: gives branches to neck region and supplies external structures of head and face