Psychology 101 Exam 3

Placenta

A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.

The Embryonic Stage

The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. During this stage, most of the vital organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing organism, which is now called an embryo.

The Fetal Stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. The developing organism is now called a fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy. Typical problems manifested in childhood include microcephaly (a small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, and delayed motor development. It is the most common known cause of mental retardation.

Motor Development

Refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities. These include grasping and reaching for objects, manipulating objects, sitting up, crawling, walking, running, and so forth.

Cephalocaudal Trend

The head-to-foot direction of motor development. Children tend to gain control over the upper part of their bodies before the lower part.

Development

The sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death.

Zygote

A one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg.

The Prenatal Period

Extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy. Divided into the germinal stage (the first two weeks), the embryonic stage (two weeks to two months), and the fetal stage (two months to birth).

The Germinal Stage

The first phase of prenatal development encompassing the first two weeks after conception.

The Proximodistal Trend

The center-outward direction of motor development. Children gain control over their torso before their extremities.

Maturation

Development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint.

Developmental Norms

Indicate the typical (median) age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities.

Cultural Variations in Motor Skills

The way a child is raised in a culture may make developmental milestones appear earlier or later than what we would consider normal.

Attachment

Refers to the close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. At 6-8 months, infants begin to show a pronounced preference for their mother's company and often protest when separated from her.

Separation Anxiety

Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. Typically peaks around 14-18 months. Doesn't necessarily have to be the mother.

Fast Mapping

The process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure.

Overextension

Occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant. Example: Ball for everything round (moon, apples, oranges)

Underextension

Occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Example: Only calls specific doll "Doll"

Telegraphic Speech

Consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted. Example: "Give doll" instead of "Please give me the doll."

Overregularization

Occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply. Example: "The girl goed home" or "I hitted the ball."

Stage

A developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established.

Erikson's Stage Theory

Each stage has a conflict and is a struggle between two opposing tendencies; 8 stages: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs self-absorption, integrity vs despair.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner. "Is my world predictable and supportive?"

Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

in Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved positively if parents provide young children with suitable guidance and appropriate choices. "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?"

Initiative Versus Guilt

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of a superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and guilt-ridden.. "Am I good or am I bad?"

Industry Versus Inferiority

The fourth of Erikson's eight psychosexual development crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent. "Am I competent or am I worthless?"

Identity Versus Confusion

According to Erikson, the major developmental task of adolescence is developing a stable ego identity, or sense of who one is. Failure results in developing a negative identity or in role confusion. "Who am I and where am I going?"

Intimacy Versus Isolation

Erikson's sixth stage of development. Adults see someone with whom to share their lives in an eduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound aloneness and isolation. "Shall I share my life with another or live alone?"

Generativity Versus Self-Absorption

Middle adulthood or the span between 40 and 65 years of age in Erikson's 8 stages (7th stage). Concern about future generations and the legacy one will leave behind us ushered in by a growing awareness of mortality at midlife. Those who fail at this task will remain focused on their own needs and wants. "Will I produce something of real value?"

Integrity Versus Despair

According to Erikson, the major developmental task of older age is finding meaning in the life that one has led. Success gives rise to a sense of integrity, whereas failure leads to despair. "Have I lived a full life?"

Cognitive Development

Refers to transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving.

Piaget's Stage Theory

States that children naturally explore world around them; 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.

Sensorimotor Period

In Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from birth to about 2 years, in which the child has not yet achieved object permanence.

Preoperational Period

In Piaget's theory, the period from about ages 2 to 7, in which a child can think representationally, but can't yet relate these representations to each other or take a point of view other than her own.

Concrete Operational Period

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development. Lasting from age 7 - 11, children master the ability to perform operations - internal transformations, manipulations, and reorganizations of mental structures - as they pertain to images of tangible objects and actual events.

Formal Operational Period

In Piaget's theory, the period from about age twelve on, in which a child can think abstractly and consider hypothetical possibilities.

Object Permanence

Develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.

Conservation

The awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance.

Cenration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

Irreversibility

The inability to envision reversing an action.

Egocentrism

Thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint.

Animism

The belief that all things are living.

Kohlberg's Stage Theory

Theory that deals with moral reasoning , not behavior; 3 levels: preconventional, conventional, post conventional; 6 stages: punishment orientation, reward, good boy/girl, authority, social construct, individual.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction.

Puberty

The stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The structures necessary for reproduction.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstration.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation.

Dementia

n abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment.

Fluid Intelligence

Involves basic reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing.

Crystallized intelligence

Involves the ability to apply acquired knowledge with skills in problem solving.

Sex

Refers to the biologically based categories of female and male.

Gender

Refers to culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and masculinity.

Gender Stereotpyes

Widely held beliefs about females' and males' abilites, personality traits, and social behavior.

Gender Differences

Are actual disparities between the sexes in typical behavior or average ability.

Gender Roles

Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex.

Personality

Refers to an individual's unique collection of consistent behavioral traits.

Personality Trait

A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.

The Five-Factor Model

The consensus among many trait researchers is that the essential building blocks of personality can be described in terms of five basic personality dimensions, sometimes called the "Big Five"; Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, - attempts to explain personality using five broad dimensions.

Id

The primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. It houses the raw biological urges (to eat, sleep, defecate, copulate, etc.) that energizes human behavior. Operates according to the pleasure principle.

The Pleasure Principle

Demands immediate gratification of its urges.

Ego

Decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle. THe ego mediate between the id and the external social world. It considers society's rules and norms when making a decision.

The Reality Principle

Seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found.

Supergo

The moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong.

Conscious

Consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.

Preconscious

Contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved.

Unconscious

Contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.

Defense Mechanisms

Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt.

Rationalization

Creates false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. For example, after cheating someone in a business transaction, you might reduce your guilt by rationalizing that "everyone does it."

Repression

Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious. Example: If you forget a dental appointment or the name of someone you don't like.

Projection

Attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another. Example: You don't like your boss, but think that your boss doesn't like you even though you like them.

Displacement

Diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target. Example: Hitting a sandbag instead of a person.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way that's exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. Example: Denying something over and over that you really believe.

Regression

A reversion to immature patterns of behavior. Example: Childish boasting and bragging.

Identification

Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group.

Psychosexual Stages

Developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality. Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

Fixation

Involves a failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected.

Oedipal Complex Children

Manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent.

The Collective Unconscious

A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people's ancestral past.

Archetypes

Emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning.

Striving for Superiority

A universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master life's challenges.

Compensation

Involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities.

Psychodynamic Criticisms

Poor testability, inadequate evidence, sexism.

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

Observational Learning

Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others.

Model

A person whose behavior is observed by another.

Self-Efficacy

Refers to one's belief that one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.

Humanism

A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.

Self-Concept

A collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.

Incongruence

The degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience.

Hierarchy of needs

A systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused.

Self-Actualization

The need to fulfill one's potential.

Self-Actualizing Persons

People with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continued personal growth.

Self-Report Inventories

Personality Tests tat ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior.

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, revised in 1980s; objective tests; most widely used object of personality test; originally developed as an aid in diagnosing psychiatric disorders; two versions-adult and adolescent

Projective Tests

Ask participants to respond to vague, ambigious stimuli in ways that may reveal the subjects' needs, feelings, and personality traits.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

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