LING 201 (final)

Rule Schema

a frame work

XP is the _____ of X

maximal projection

X’ is the _____ of X

intermediate projection

complement

the thing that’s selected by a V A P or N

head

the V A P or N itself

subcategorisation / selection

head is in charge of selecting its complement

c(category)-selection

head selects the category of its complement

l(lexical)-selection

head selects the head if its complement

s(semantic)-selection

ex: ask wants its complete to express a question

what are adjuncts

APs and PPs

Adjuncts

• never elected by heads

• freely repeatable

what does adjuncts help us do?

helps get rid of stars in the grammar

how does the specifier schema look-like?

XP —> (Specifier) X’

whats the specifier of AP?

Deg

whats the specifier of VP?

T

whats the specifier of NP?

D or PossP

whats the specifier of PP?

right, straight or clear

Functional Heads

special kind of head

• all of our single-word specifiers

is the X’ theory just for English?

nope

whats another form of the X’ schema?

X’ —> Complement X

what allows for different forms of the X’ schema?

Headedness Parameter

Headedness Parameter

is this language head-initial or head-final

Head-initial languages

have the head on the left and complement on right

head-final languages

have the head on the right and complement on left

parametrically

grammar switches from one set to another

a generative grammar framework where human languages share universal, innate grammatical principles but differ based on binary "switches" or parameters

where can T only occur?

at the left edge of S if there is no T in the middle

(T is usually Q word)

Transformations

an operation that makes a new tree out of an old one

inversion transformation (preliminary)

move the leftmost T to the left edge of sentence

a [aux] verb move?

yes it can move to the left edge

inversion transformation (better)

move the leftmost [aux] into the nearest C containing [Q]

deep structure

first tree generated by the PS rules and x’ schemata

surface structure

the final tree, the one that’s actually pronounced

conventionalised

basic meaning of words and sentences

semantics

basic, fixed/conventionalised meaning of words and phrases

pragmatics

worked-out, additional meaning associated with the circumstances of use

entailment

Conventionalised meaning of a sentence

have to be true if the sentence is true

implicatures

worked out by listener on the basis on entailments

can turn out to be false even if the sentence is true

what is cancelable? implicatures or entailments?

implicatures

truth conditions

requirements that must be met for a sentence to be true

principle of compositionality

the meaning of a sentence/constituent is determined by the meanings of its parts/daughters

how do we want to read meaning?

from the top down (XP level and down)

model

a representation of the world

non branching nodes rule

if a node in a tree has only one daughter, it has the same meaning as its daughter

rule for A

rule for IS

IFF

if and only if

intersective modification

the set of members that the the 2 sets have in common

what does the interactive modifier look like

what does the rule for no look like?

Maxim of Quality

say only things that they believe to be true and have evidence for

Maxim of Quantity

make every statement as strong—that is, informative—as possible

Maxim of Relevance/Relation

say only what is relevant

Maxim of Manner

say things in a sensible manner: clever, brief, orderly

what does the rule for every look like?

membership

something is a member of a set if it is one of the basic parts from which the set is built

Subset

one set is a subset of another if all its members are also member son the other set

singleton set

a singleton ser is a set with one member, not the same as the member itself

complement, set difference - A\B

cardinality |A|

the number of members in A