A-Level History - The Nature of Government

Russian History

What were the key political beliefs?

Tsars accountable to God (no need for democracy), paternalistic duty to Russians, the vast size of the Empire meant that democracy was impractical and peasants too uneducated to understand

How did Alexander II enforce autocracy?

*reforms (e.g. emancipation) only happened to stop a revolution

*reform programme ended after the 1st assassination attempt

*trial of political opponents in 1877

*serf owners'/nobility compensated-maintenance of hierarchical power

How did Alexander III enforce autocracy?

*’reaction’ against reforms of Alexander II

*imprisonment, executions and surveillance of those who opposed and murdered his father

*Land Captains introduced to monitor and control peasants

*’The Manifesto on Unshakeable Autocracy’ reasserted the authority of the Tsars

*reintroduced censorship to limit publications against the Tsars and any promotion of democracy

*greater control of legal system: closed courts, removal of judges etc

How did Nicholas II enforce autocracy?

*autocracy continued, even apparent move towards democracy (October Manifesto and Duma) was partly withdrawn and limited by the Fundamental Laws of 1906

*threats to power were dealt with through arrest, imprisonment etc: students protesting were exiled, peasants were arrested or exiled

How did the Communists establish a dictatorship?

After the removal of Tsarist autocratic power in March 1917, the PG allowed greater freedoms and democracy, e.g. promise of election for a Constituent Assembly, release of political prisoners, right of Trade Unions, freedom of the press, religion etc

Lenin - how was Marxism-Leninism implemented through dictatorship?

Based on ideology of Marx and Engels: anti-capitalist, arguing the Proletariat should be exploited by the Bourgeoise for their labour

Therefore (Marxism-Leninism)?

The workers would overthrow the capitalists and govern themselves, Lenin claimed intellectuals were needed to help govern in the short term

What did Lenin argue in “What is to be Done?” 1902?

Argued it was necessary to bypass elections (as these were dominated and influenced by the bourgeoise) and allow Russia to be run the Party Central Committee, led by the Bolsheviks who understood Marxism

What other ways was Marxism-Leninism implemented under Lenin?

*Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917 and disbanding of the Constituent Assembly of November 1917

*Civil War 1917-1921, defeated opponents of Communists revolution

What did War Communism force?

Requistioning and sharing of produce. Use of the Cheka to enforce cooperation

Why was the NEP introduced after Civil War?

To appease the peasants and more moderate workers. However, caused a split in the party, some such as Trotsky thought it was too compromising and not communist enough

Stalin - how did Stalin move to a ‘Totalitarianist’ regime through command economy?

Centralised planning for collectivisation (produce and farms) and 5 year plans (targets for greater industrialisation). Full control over the economy and production (removal of NEP)

How else did Stalin move to a totalitarianist regime?

*personalisation of the superstructure revolved around himself, all important decisions directed from him.

*‘Cult of Personality’ - propaganda (censorship, posters, art etc) to indoctrinate and persuade people of Stalin’s authority and success

Khrushchev and de-Stalinisation - how authoritarian was his rule?

*criticising Stalin for preparing enough for war, crimes against Russian and ‘outsiders’

*Khrushchev released political prisoners, relaxed censorship, removed the cult of personality - more liberal and reforming

However, what did Khrushchev maintain?

Central control and sued force when needed, e.g. against Hungarian uprising in 1956

When was there continuity in central administration?

*both structures were hierarchical - Tsar at the top of the Politburo (Communist)

*all parts of the government were accountable to the leaders

When was there continuity in central administration under the Tsars?

*Council of Ministers (law making and administration)

*Imperial Council of State (gave the Tsar legal and financial advice)

*Committee of Ministers (changed in 1906)

*Senate (Supreme Court)

When was there continuity in central administration under the Communists?

*All Russian Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee (EUC): divided into 3 parts

• Politburo (policy making, highest group)

• Orgburo (organisation of the Communist group)

• Ogburo (dealt with opposition)

*Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) - government ministers

Why was there also not changed in continuity in central administration under the Tsars?

*1905 October Manifesto changed the system of government. Committee of Ministers was divided up and duties given to state council to monitor the Duma and Duma

*power of the Duma changed in 1906, Fundamental Laws said it was accountable to the Tsar - therefore this was very limited change

What was the 1924 Constitution?

Recognised the USSR - made up of all the areas of Russia gained in the Civil War. This congress was headed by the CEC, with leaders of the CEC running the government in between congresses

What was the 1936 constitution?

Supreme Soviet (USSR), divided between Soviet of the Union (representatives of the USSR) and Soviet of Nationalities - therefore this constitution appeared to offer more representation across Russia - however it rarely met and Stalin and the Communist Party maintained all the power and final say

What was the local government like before 1861?

The provinces were under the control of the local nobility and the Mir (groups of elders)

What did this change with?

The Emancipation of the Serfs, therefore the local nobility no longer had their role

Therefore in 1864, what di Alex II introduce?

The Zemstva (regional councils-only in areas of Great Russia)

What was the Zemstva (rural)?

Landowners and peasants voted for member of these, to stand for election to the Zemstva there were property qualifications

What was the Duma (urban)?

Created in 1870 and had higher qualifications than the Zemstva to stand

What did the Zemstva and Duma provide?

Local services in education, health, transport.

Who was working for the Zemstva and Duma and what did they demand?

*many liberals and intellectuals who were called the ‘Third Element’

*demanded greater liberal and democratic ideas in central government

What did Zemstvas and Dumas represent?

Some elements of democracy and reform

What happened to Zemstvas and Dumas in 1917?

Abolished by the Bolsheviks - as being too bourgeois and middle class

What was the Zemstvas and Dumas replaced by?

The Soviets

What was the Soviets?

A workers council first established in the October Manifesto of 1905 involved in strikes, workers rights etc

Who joined the Soviets?

The SR’s and SD’s and dominated the executive committee

What happened between March-October 1917 under the Soviets?

Petrograd Soviet controlled a lot of Russia through control over the workers, strikes and transport

Overall what was the Soviets between March-October 1917?

The main system of local government for the rest of the period, controlled by the communists

What was the changes in the Judiciary in 1864?

Legal reforms introduced to create a jury system, new courts for different cases, better pay for judges (less corruption) and the public could attend courts

What was the changes in the judiciary in 1877?

*after an attempt on Alexander II’s life, a new Senate court was set up to try political cases

*however, the Senate was discredited after the Vera Zasulich case

*some argued the new reforms were allowing revolutionary activity

What was the Vera Zasulich case?

She was a revolutionary who had shot the governor of St Petersburg, she was found not guilty as it was argued her actions were justified

What was the changes in judiciary in 1881?

*Alexander II reversed liberal approach

*centralised the police under the Minister for the Interior and extended powers of arrest

*special courts set up for political cases with increased powers

*JP’s replaced by Land Captains (members of the landowning nobility with indirect powers to fin and arrest peasants)

What was the reform and subsequent reinforcement of authoritarian legal system?

Reflects how this was used to enforce the Tsar’s autocratic rule

What were the different methods of repression and enforcement?

*Secret Police

*Army

*Propaganda

*Censorship

Secret Police - what did the Okhrana target?

Small groups and individuals (imprisoned or exiled) - however evidently not that successful due to many assassination attempts

Who did Alex II and Nicholas II use the Okhrana against?

Opposition groups, e.g SR’s and SD’s. Also used undercover agents

However, what suggests that the Okhrana was limited?

The growth of opposition groups and strikes, rebellions, especially during the war

Secret police: what did Lenin introduce?

The Cheka to deal with opposition to the Bolsheviks - used to enforce War Communism and for the Red Terror (persecution, killings etc during the Civil War)

What was the OGPU?

Less brutal and replaced the Cheka in 1924 - once Bolshevism had been established

Secret police: what did Stalin introduce in 1934?

NKVD, as he feared growing opposition

Secret Police: what was the NKVD like?

More brutal again - included show trials, purges, executions and labour camps

Secret Police: what did Khrushchev introduce?

The MVD for ordinary criminal acts and civil disobedience and KGB for internal and external security opposition

Army: what did the Tsars use army for?

To stop strikes and rebellions - Alex III used it to enforce Russification, Nicholas II to control workers protests

Army: how did Lenin use it?

*MRC (Petrograd soldiers) was used by the Bolsheviks to defeat the PG in the October Revolution

*merged with the Red Guard to create the Red Army

Army: was the Red Army successful?

Successful in defeating opposition against White and Green Armies in the Civil War and securing Lenin

Army: what did Stalin use?

*the Red Army to requisition grain and for the purges

*also used in the Great Terror - ironically many military leaders were removed in the Great Purge of 1936-38

Army: despite victory in the war, how did Stalin view the army?

With suspicion after it, e.g. General Zhukov was exiled

Army: how did Khrushchev use it?

For international conflicts, e.g. Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962

Propaganda: how did Nicholas II use it?

Portraits, pamphlets, photos, events to increase popularity

Propaganda: how did Communists use it?

*slogans

*cult of personality

*newspapers

*social realism in art - also used to help indoctrination of the Communist ideals of strength, work and dedication

Censorship: how did the Tsars and Communists use it?

To control publications as a means of removing ideas opposing their rule

Even though the Tsars relaxed censorship overall, what did they do?

Monitor subversive material

What did this lead to?

The publication of Karl Marx in Russia, under Alexander II and Kopek newspapers aimed at the workers, some details of discussion in the Dumas were also published

What did this therefore highlight?

Greater awareness and availability of information opposed to Tsardom and new political beliefs

What did the communists establish regarding censorship?

Agitprop (writers and official newspapers)

What did Agitprop promote?

Idealised Russian life - schools, libraries, radio etc under surveillance to monitor any oppositional ideas

What did Stalin also create regarding censorship?

The USW (Union of Soviet Writers) - any writers who refused were exiled or arrested

What was censorship like under Khrushchev?

Reduced - books, newspapers, libraries greatly increased

Overall, how did the Tsar’s use repression?

As a means of maintaining control

Overall, how did the Communists use repression?

Deliberately to create terror as a means of control

What happened to internal opposition to the Tsars?

Opponents were removed from their posts, e.g. Witte was demoted from being finance minister in 1903

What were the different opposition groups to the Tsars?

*the Populists (Narodniks)

*The People’s Will

*Socialist Revolutionaries (SR’s)

*Social Democrat's (SD’s)

*The Liberals

*Kadets

*Octobrists

How were the Populists formed?

Following the relaxation of censorship rules under Nicholas, a group of intellectuals created the Populist movement, led by Chernyshevsky and Lavrov

What did Chernyshevsky publish?

“What Is To Be Done?” in 1863 - with ideas for how to deal with poor peasants and influenced by Marx

What did Lavrov organise?

A “Going to the People” campaign 1873/4. 4000 university students tried to educate peasants with political ideas. Overall failed, and disagreements over whether to use violence or peace

How did the People’s Will emerge?

From the ‘Land and Liberty’ movement (pressure group who lived among the peasants to understand their plight)

What did The People’s Will want?

To use violence to start a revolution and made 4 failed attempts to assassinate Alexander II, before succeeding in 1881

When was SR’s created?

1901 and was led by Chernov, but soon split into 2 groups

What two groups was the SR’s split into?

*left-wing SR’s

*right-wing SR’s

What was the left-wing SR’s like?

More radical, responsible for about 2000 political killings such as Grand Duke Sergei and Plehve. Mainly focused on the problems facing industrial workers

What was the right-wing SR’s like?

*more moderate, worked with other parties and groups, appealed to the peasants

*had amassed great support by 1917

When was the Social Democrats created?

1898, influenced by Plekhanov (from Marx), who urged workers to develop a working class consciousness

What was the Social Democrats main goals?

Focused on improving pay and reducing working hours for the workers

What were the ‘Liberals’ like?

Westernisers who wanted Russia ran in a similar way to democracies in the West

What did the creation of the Zemstva highlight?

Liberal ideas

What did Struve create in 1904 and what did it want?

*the Union of Liberation

*wanted greater freedoms, more land distribution, improved conditions for workers and a representative Constituent Assembly

Who led the Kadets?

Milyukov

When was the Kadets formed and what did they want?

*after the 1905 October Manifesto

*wanted a constitutional monarchy

What were the Kadets influential in?

The First Duma and opposed its disbanding, many removed for next Duma

Who led the Octobrists?

Guchkov and Rodzianko

What did the Octobrists want?

Liberal policies and wanted further reform after 1905, but overall loyal to the Tsar

Why was opposition to the Tsar’s limited before?

*control by the Tsars - increase in censorship, police state and courts for political crimes after 1880’s

*political control - limited political power for groups, not allowed before 1905, then gradual removal of influence through successive Duma’s

*lack of unity from opposition groups, e.g. some wanted democracy, or Marxism, or constitutional monarchy etc

Where was there opposition to the PG?

*release of political prisoners and those in exile - wanted the removal of the elite politicians from the Duma

April Thesis - plans to overthrow the PG and place all power with the Soviet. Eventually overthrow the PR in October 1917 at the Winter Palace

*Kornilov Affair - General Kornilov attempted to take over power, however put down by Kerensky with the support of the Bolsheviks, this strengthened their power

*growing strength of workers committees - many started supporting the Bolsheviks

Opposition to the Communists - elections to the Constituent Assembly:

*Bolsheviks had started to rule de facto, however did not win a majority in the elections in November 1917, e.g. SRs won 270 seats and Bolsheviks won only 175. This shows opposition from the voters

*Lenin argued the elections had been rigged and used military force to close the assembly

How did Bolsheviks face opposition from the Civil War, end of 1917-1921?

In their attempt to maintain and increase power over all of Russia. There was much fighting, battles, arrests and murders

Where else was there opposition to Lenin?

*White Army - political opponents from the Constituent Assembly

*Green Army - peasants opposed to Bolshevik rule

*foreign countries and nearby states: British marines, USA troops, Czech legion, Poland, Ukraine (wanting freedom from Russia), Cossacks

*1921 - following the victory of the Red Army, Lenin banned all other political parties and factionalism within the Bolshevik party

After Lenin’s death, why was there opposition and disputes in the party?

Whether to continue the NEP, some demands for more democracy, to spread communism

After Lenin’s death, what was the United Opposition Group?

Formed by Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev to oppose Stalin. They argued against NEP and wanted more free speech. Stalin then excluded them all from the Politburo and Trotsky was exiled

Where was there opposition to Stalin in 1929?

*Bukharin, Kamenenv, Tomsky and Rykov opposed Stalin’s plans for collectivisation

*Bukharin was removed from the Politburo and the others were demoted

*Stalin used loyal supporters in order to dominate policies and implement 5 year plans and collectivisation

Where was there opposition to Stalin in the 1930s?

*opposition was dealt with more harshly, either removed from party, exiled or executed

*Khrushchev ended the purging and tolerated more critical opinions

Where was there opposition to the Emancipation Edict?

*further rebellions over the amount to be payed for redemption payments, land redistribution and rising prices. These involved taking land, not paying taxes, robbing warehouses and attacks on landowners

*Black Earth regions

*Stolypin introduced land reforms to appease the peasant leaders

Where was there opposition to the Civil War?

*peasants supported both the White and Red Armies (Bolsheviks)

*many turned to support the White Army after grain requisitioning was introduced by the Bolsheviks

*this was one reason why NEP was introduced by Lenin after the war

Why was there opposition to collectivisation?

Due to the removal of the Mir, requisitioning of resources and starvation - some peasants refused to cooperate and slaughtered cattle in protest