Ideologies

Empiricism

preference for evidence over theory- emphasis on what is over what should be

Normative- denotes how arrangements should be in the future- disagrees with Conservatism

Hobbes key quotes and theories

• Leviathan 1651- life in state of nature ‘nasty, brutish and short’, ‘war of every man against every man’

• Wisdom of submission- Individuals surrender to a sovereign (Leviathan) to create an ordered society

Burke key quotes and theories

• Reflections on the revolution in France 1790- stresses importance of gradual reform, change to conserve (with emphasis on empiricism, organicism, tradition)

• revolution = rule by ‘swinish multitude’

• Mankinds tendency to fail (imperfection) so Burke denounces idealistic society- ‘Beware the lust for new)

• Criticised new French repub for centralized govt, praising a society of ‘little platoons’

Micheal Oakeshott key quotes and theories

• ‘On being Conservative’ 1962- ‘philosophy of imperfection need not be a philosophy of pessimism’- conservatives ‘prefer present laughter to utopian bliss’

• Nautical metaphor- all sail sea in no direction, states role is to stop boat from sinking

• ‘Rationalism in politics’ 1962 emphasis on pragmatism

Nozicks criticism of Oakeshott’s theory

too fatalistic and underestimates our ability to shape circumstances

‘lazy’, allowed socialist ideas to develop post war

Rand key quotes and theories

• Atlas shrugged 1957- talented individuals rather than ambitious governments lay at heart of any society no matter how much state extends itself

• Virtue of Selfishness 1964- theory of Objectivism

  • belief we should be guided by self interest and rational self-fulfillment- link to New Rights revival of negative liberty and laissez faire capitalism

• ‘The small state is the strong state’- but order and security necessary as well as free markets so not anarchy (but defends right to choose e.g on homosexuality)

• Links with atomism- society defined by autonomous individuals all seeking self fulfillment and self realisation

Nozick key quotes and theories

• ‘Anarchy, state and Utopia’ 1974

  • Growth of govt gravest threat to individual freedom

  • Growth of Western welfare states led to culture of dependency

• Minimal (minarchist) state, with a permissive society (unlike some elements of neo-conservative)

• ‘Tax, for the most part, is theft’- state could play role in outsourcing public services to private companies- Distributive injustice

• ‘Tale of the slave’ govt control of demanding taxes likened to slavery

• society predates state

similarity between Nozick and Burke

Nozick’s minarchism would allow multitude of self-sufficient communities to emerge and practice own moral counselling (e.g socialist values) alongside extension of individual freedoms- similar to Burke’s idea of ‘little platoons’

Noblesse oblige

soft paternalism (vs Hobbes hard paternalism) revived by Disraeli (Sybil/Two nations)

Conservatives and HN- moral, psychological, intellectual

• moral- humankind selfish and greedy, crime stems from individual

• psychological- limited and dependent creatures, fear isolation and seek security of knowing place- emphasis on importance of tradition and social order

• intellectually limited- conservatives suspicious of abstract and radical systems (But undermined by New Right)

New right and economy

• Nozick ‘tale of the slave’

• Competition as means of driving up standards- Milton Friedman ‘power of choice’

• govt job to control inflation not provide full employment

• Thatcher- shrunk size of state through tax cuts and privatisation

• Nozick and Rand (Friedman and Von Hayek) faith in free market- deregulated

trad cons- human nature and economy

• fear of unstable nature of capitalist booms and busts and optimistic liberal view about free market= more pessimistic

• reluctant support of capitalism and prepared to use protectionism/mercantilism

• emphasis on private property

Onc and economy

• Disraeli prepared to accept increased govt regulation of economy due to noblesse oblige e.g placing max hours on work, banning children under 9 from working 9 (warned of ‘two nations’)

• 20thc- prepared to embrace keynesian economics - Harold Macmillan describes as economic middle way between extremes of state managed socialism and extremes of free market capitalism

Charles murray

• ‘emerging British underclass’ 1987

• criticizes benefit dependency, especially among single mothers

Burke on tradition

• ‘accumulated wisdom’ of past generations = stability and social cohesion, respect for institutions - family and monarchy

• society is a partnership between ‘those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born’

• organic society- society is ‘a partnership in all art and science’

• stress on organic hierarchy vs atomistic individualism of new right

New right strands

• Neo-conservatives

  • concerned with society, cohesion and trad values, oppose permissiveness e.g Thatcher section 28, Trump

• Neo-liberals

  • atomistic view of soc, free market, positive rational human nature, permissive society- concerned with economic and individual freedom

  • Rand rejects altruism engineered by state

To what extent is there more agreement than disagreement within conservatism?

• Human nature

• state and society

• economy

To what extent are conservatives united in their view towards the state?

• All - see place for state in society

• Disagreement - Paternalistic, hierarchical state (organic state/noblesse oblige) vs Minarchist libertarian state

  • Trad/ONC - state is highest authority, performs paternalistic role

    • disagreement between extent of paternalism e.g between Hobbes and Disraeli

• Disagreement - Pragmatic vs ideological governance of state

  • Burke- state should not attempt radical change- state should be based on empiricism

  • Oakeshott- ‘rationalism in politics’

  • VS- NR- prioritise abstract principles state should follow- laissez-faire, non-interventionism and self ownership

To what extent are Conservatives united in their view of society?

• All accept degree of inequality in society - but disagree on source (Trad- based on hierarchy and tradition, NR- based on free market)

• Disagreement - Organic society vs Atomistic individualism

• Most- accept importance of tradition in society (apart from neo-liberals)

Egotistical individualism vs developmental individualism

• Egotistical- belief individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self interest- leads to classical belief in limited govt

• Developmental- (classical and modern)- individual must help themselves to improve

  • Classical- state should interfere as little as possible in this (limited govt)

  • Modern- by intervening, state can assist in individuals development e.g education

Harm principle

state is justified in interfering with individual freedom when it is to prevent citizens doing harm to others

J.S Mill- On liberty 1859

Self-regarding actions should not be restricted by state even if immoral to oneself

Mechanistic theory of the state

State is not organic but created by individuals to serve them and act in their interests (modern/classical disagree over what best interests are)

John Locke- Social contract (Enlightenment) between rulers and ruled not divine right of kings creating a govt by consent, but rejects Hobbes authoritarian state

opposite of conservative view that society is an organism in which the state evolves over time

reflects liberal support for foundational and formal equality

Lockes state of nature

underpinned by ‘natural laws’, ‘natural liberties’ and ‘natural rights’

foundational equality- natural right to ‘life, liberty, property’- (two treatises of govt 1689)

Jefferson in American Declaration (1776) described inalienable rights as ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’

key principles of liberalism

• freedom and liberty

• individualism

• liberal democracy

• tolerance

• limited government

• rationalism

• equality of rights

Locke quote on limited state

‘Government has no other end than the preservation of property’

but - views education as essential- everything we know is derived from experience as minds are a ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slate)

negative vs positive liberty

• negative- freedom from state interference - classical

• positive- freedom to achieve ones goals- modern (20th c idea freedom not merely absence from restraints but also potential)

This is rooted in the fact both view freedom as essential for facilitating personal autonomy (Mills- w/ personal autonomy individuals can achieve self-realisation)

Wollstonecraft

• rejected view of authoritative writers at the time e.g Jean-Jacques Rousseau who wanted to deny women a formal education

• womens rational nature gives ground for formal equality and education + equal rights to fully participate in democracy (liberal democracy)

• ‘vindication of the rights of woman’ 1792

Rawls on social justice

• ‘theory of justice’- state led redistribution to improve equality of opportunity (distributive justice)

• liberty and equality of opportunity must exist in relatively equal economic system

• ‘Veil of ignorance’ theory- all would choose a just society with minimal inequality

• difference principle- economic inequalities permissible if benefitting most disadvantaged e.g through incentives and productivity (genuine meritocracy e.g doctors should be paid more for incentive and benefit of society)

liberalism and democracy

• Liberal = all citizens equal, democracy = majority earn right to form govt, and majority respect rights of minority

• Toleration (as individuals are rational)- Voltaire ‘I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it’, Locke- govt should protect ‘life, liberty, property’ but no right to meddle in ‘the care of mens souls’

• Inherent distrust of overextending govt as all govts potential tyrannies against individual

• Constitution is needed to enshrine natural rights e.g in Tom Paine’s Rights of man 1791

Classical vs Modern liberals on democracy

• collectivist concept so may lead to tyranny, could threaten private property and individual freedom so govts need consent of people to rule (Locke’s social contract)

• Modern- democracy is best way to limit govt- encourages participation, improving education- adding value to personal development

criticisms of natural rights

• edmund Burke feared widespread belief in natural rights would lead to social instability

• Jeremy Bentham - rights arise from actions of govts (e.g creation of laws) so not inalienable- describes natural rights as ‘nonsense on stilts’

• Modern liberals e.g T.H Green argued individual rights must also be connected to common good

Liberalism in UDHR 1948

‘the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family’

To what extent do Liberals agree over human nature?

• Individualism

• Rationalism

• Equality

J.S Mill and Kant on individualism

• J.S Mill- ‘over himself, his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’

• Immanuel Kant- ‘individuals are an end to themselves not just a means’

  • Links to human nature as individualism emphasises rationalism

rationalism in the enlightenment and pre-enlightenment

• pre-enlightenment- humans should rely on knowledge of those in power (Paternalism)

• Enlightenment- reason is the ultimate source of authority and legitimacy (instead of religious, emotional, superstitious notions)

Betty Friedan

• Feminine mystique - ‘the problem with no name’ deep dissatisfaction due to societys assumption female fulfillment based on marriage and children

• genuine freedom for women- formal legal equality and state intervention e.g access to childcare and education

• state should help remove structural barriers for women (positive liberty) which prevent women from achieving autonomy and economic independence

Conflict - liberals- state

• J.S Mill ‘Nightwatchman state’ vs Rawls ‘Enabling state’ w/ distributive justice

Liberal govt reforms 1906-14 and modern liberalism

• Asquith, Churchill, Lloyd-George

• old age pensions, Labour exchanges set up, National Insurance Act 1911

• Shift towards positive liberty- helping individuals achieve freedom than simple limited govt

• enabling state as inequality removes ability of individuals to make rational decisions

Classical liberalism and the economy

• Limited govt= laissez faire economy

• Adam Smith- invisible hand of market

• oppose mercantilism as limits individuals right to choose (Ricardo- comparative advantage)

• trickle down economics

Modern liberalism and the economy

• Free market economy

• Egotistical individualism can lead to market failure so some state involvement needed -Keynesian economics

• Distributive justice

• welfare state e.g early 20thc liberal party reforms to create enabling state

Keynesian economics

• assumption the govt should intervene within economy to mitigate effects of market failure

• mixed economy w/ role for private and public sector

• ‘the man in whitehall knows best’- postwar consensus where civil servants entrusted w/ steering economy, managing full employment and controlling key industry

To what extent does liberalism have a fear of the state?

• Freedom

• Equality

• Democracy

key principles of socialism

• collectivism

• workers control

• social class

• common humanity

• equality

Marx & Engels- empiricism

• argued theories were empirical and scientifically determined- explaining historical change through historical materialism: arguing economic factors driving force for change

• economic base (Capitalism) forms and shapes superstructure (Culture, politics, law, ideology, social consciousness)

• Dialectic- clash of ideas and perceptions between each stage of history

  • occurs when pre-existing set of ideas (ruling class) no longer valued by majority- new society formed from opposing tensions

  • Hegelian dialectic- development occurs through contradiction

Marx- class consciousness and phases of communism

• Communist manifesto 1848

• Dialectic struggle between proletariat (who will gain class consciousness) and bourgeoisie

• argued liberal democracy was a ‘democratic swindle’ as state controlled by bourgeoisie- state uses religion, patriotism, enfranchisement, social reforms to weaken class consciousness

  • religion ‘opium of masses’

• Dictatorship of proletariat will occur then state will wither away into classless soc based on common ownership

Human nature- revolutionary socialists

• common brotherhood- humans are naturally sociable and fraternal - John Donne ‘no man is an island’

• capitalism forces competition (selfishness) which is entirely unnatural, devastating and alienating impact of capitalism- working together makes moral and economic sense

• e.g Rochdale pioneers- cooperative movement

• interests of group should take priority over individual

• economically- individual effort is wasteful/limited impact

Equality- revolutionary socialist

• seek total equality by abolishing private ownership (Marx and Engels) leading to communism (equality of outcome- equal material rewards)

• egalitarianism - desire to promote social equality, belief equality is the most fundamental political value

• Marx- ‘from each according to his ability to each according to his needs’

Collectivism- Revolutionary socialism

• support wholesale collective effort through policies e.g 5YPs or communal living- collectivism organised by state

• Rosa Luxemburg- genuine equality requires revolutionary transformation not gradual reform

Social class- revolutionary socialists

• Marxists emphasise class politics based on division of capital and labour- conflict between owners of wealth and proletariat is inevitable (dialectic)

  • Marx predicted this would lead to a proletarian revolution overthrowing capitalist state & bourgeoisie - with goal of classless equal society

  • Private property must be abolished to end class divisions

• Marx - ‘The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle’

Workers control- revolutionary socialists

• Only way to rid workers of alienation and exploitation is to abolish capitalism all together

• means of production collectivised - common ownership

• workers responsible for collective decisions as state withers away (communism)

Marx four aspects of alienation (reasons for workers control)

• alienation from the product of labour

• alienation from the process of labour (work is unfulfilling)

• alienation from species essence- humanity (capitalism creates selfish competition which is unnatural)

• alienation from other individuals (social- seeing fellow workers as rivals)
  

20thc socialists and workers control

• Syndicalists were hostile to state- saw as capitalist and inefficient, instead wanted federation of workers bodies - e.g early 20thc french syndicalism

• Guild socialists- state ownership of industry in pursuit of workers control- proposed by GDH Cole

• industrial self management by workers living under state socialism reinforces idea socialism should enhance conditions of w-c e.g workers councils in Yugoslavia 1950/60s

fundamental beliefs shared by all strands of socialism

• importance of social equality

• belief in human cooperation

• need to challenge or manage inequalities created by Capitalism

Rosa Luxemburg

• 1913- ‘accumulation of capital’

• evolutionary capitalism flawed- capitalism cannot be reformed

• Marx’s historical materialism is flawed- capitalism does not need to reach final stage before abolished- communist revs could happen in less economically developed socs

• Lenin’s idea of a ‘Vanguard elite’ flawed- class consciousness will develop spontaneously through struggle for democracy and strike action (direct action and mass mobilisation)

• internationalism is central (consistent w/ Marx and Engels)

social democracy- human nature

• accept capitalism plays a role in providing material rewards to motivate individuals

• Evolutionary socialists- moral incentive to seek financial gains in order to redistribute wealth

• constrain and tame capitalism to reduce inequality + promote common humanity

Social democracy -equality

• accept some inequality of outcome as inevitable as accept capitalism has role in motivating human productivity

Collectivism- social democracy

• support mixture of collective effort, TUs, welfare (NHS) & individual effort

social class- Social democracy

• focus on narrowing gaps between social classes (growing middle class & decline in trad working class industries)

  • social amelioration and class harmony over social polarisation and class war - consequence of declining class solidarity

• social democrats define class in terms of income and status (e.g white vs blue collar)- vs revolutionary split between labour and capital

• advocate economic/social intervention to narrow class divisions

Workers control/ capitalism - Social democracy

• do not wish to completely abolish capitalism as oppose to revolutionaries

• systems like TUs can create greater worker control ensuring decisions over wages and conditions

• nationalisation of key public industries- should be run in public interest & profits reinvested

Beatrice Webb

• inevitability of gradualness- evolutionary socialist belief parliamentary democracy and not revolution will deliver inevitable socialist society due to enfranchisement of wc who will vote for socialist parties

• revolutions are ‘chaotic, infefficient and counter-productive’

• expansion of state vital

• ‘Minority report of the poor law commission’ 1909- many ideas from this report used in 1942 Beveridge report (basis of welfare state in Britain- 5 giant evils in society)

• Fabian society links w/Labour- Webbs played large part in Labour party constitution 1918 incl. original Clause IV (committment to public ownership)

Anthony Crosland

• ‘Future of Socialism’ 1956

• modern capitalism could deliver equality and justice when managed by welfare and education reforms

• Marx’s analysis dialectic of historical materialism not present in post-war Capitalism with growing middle class and higher living standards

• Equality of opportunity can be achieved through state education - judged existing British system ‘the most divisive, unjust and wasteful of all the social aspects of inequality’

• Mixed economy w/ Keynesian economics- state managed capitalism

early utopian socialism

Robert Owen - belief in importance of a positive environment for human development and happiness- New Lanark

Third way and human nature

• more prepared to accept liberal individualism

• share socialist view of common humanity- accept human beings need communities - committment to communitarianism

Third way & equality

• reject equality of outcome but supports strong equality of opportunity

• acknowledge social factors involved in creation of wealth

• economic efficiency can be combined with social justice

• reduced but strategic welfare state- aimed at education, training and childcare e.g Blair’s sure start

Third Way & collectivism

• acceptance of liberal individualism

• but accept limited collective effort

• Blair abolished Clause IV in 1995 replacing with market friendly, moderate clause

Clause IV 1918

‘secure for the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry’ ‘upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange’

social class- third way

• decline in trad working class industries- forced traditional socialist parties to revise policies in order to appeal to middle classes (Mondeo man - 1999 declared ‘the class war is over’)

• define radicalism less in terms of class emancipation and more in gender equality, peace, ecological sustainability

workers control- Third way

• acceptance of capitalism

• workers control could refer to individual business in cooperative movement

Anthony Giddens

• ‘Beyond left and right’ 1994, ‘The third way: the renewal of Social democracy’ 1998

• socialism must harness the benefits of irreversible free market capitalism whilst neutralising negative effects on community/fraternity

• prudent taxation of free market wealth can fund spending on infrastructure, community services and public transport

• ‘active welfare’ e.g access to higher education, academy schools

• ‘socialism is dead as an economic doctrine’

• socialist critics see third way as a wholesale capitulation to global, free market capitalism

essay plan - To what extent does the 3rd way effectively abandon socialist principles?

• equality/social justice

• collectivism/workers control

• social class/extent of capitalism