Anthropology 207 Final Exam 낱말 카드 | Quizlet

Sex and Gender

These are not the same although they may influence one another

All cultures have norms regarding how individuals should act based on their sex and gender

Sex

the biological distinction between females and males

Biological and physiological

(chromosomes and hormones etc)

Gender

0% biological

Socio-cultural construct

Often based on sex but it does not have to be

What is the most common way to construct gender

Through Sex

Sex as a social construct

Sometimes in the case of intersex individuals they are born with gradual changes in hormones. If anyone such as a doctor or parent determines the "sex" this means it is socially constructed. So although rooted in biology, this is a social construction

Gender Roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

These are culturally specific- NOT natural

This is constructed through enculturation

Why do we require gender categories?

Society is built on gender roles and has broken gender into specific categories

Gender creates this social category

gender identity

the individual's sense of self as a person of a specific gender

we become members of our gender

this is often considered very private to people because it plays such an important factor in our lives and identities

Cisgender

term used when gender identity and/or expression aligns with the sex assigned at birth

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

What is the focus in the west?

On individual's identity

Gender Expression

How a person chooses to express their gender identity through clothing, mannerisms etc.

gender nonconforming

People who behave in ways that contradict traditional gender roles

non-binary gender

Is when a person does not identify with either gender (male or female)

Traditions exist in many cultures

Examples of Non-Binary Groups

Two Spirit Peoples (Indigenous cultures in North America)

Hijras (India and Pakistan)

Sworn Virgins (Balkans)

Sexuality

Often closely related to sex and gender

Traditionally, sexuality refers to how individuals experience and value physical desire and pleasure in the context of sexual intercourse.

However, anthropologists use 'sexualities' (plural) and they are more interested in how sexual desires and pleasures are shaped by larger social, cultural, and political structures of the society in which people live.

sexual orientation

a person's romantic and emotional attraction to another person

(Probably biological)

Homosexuality, Bisexuality, pansexuality, Asexuality

Attitudes toward sexuality

Different cultures have different ideas about sexuality and what is considered to be "allowed" vs what is not or deviant

They do not always fit with "western ideals"

Kinship

a system of social relatedness in a specific culture

Culture is not fixed/static therefore the system can vary across cultures

Some ties may have more value than others

How can people be related

Birth

Adoption

Marriage

Chosen families (queer communities)

Who you choose to be friends with

Kinship by blood

This may seem simple however it is not. Depending on the family dynamic- whether birth father/parents are in your life. It also can vary depending across cultures- this could mean that your cousins are not considered blood or in some countries some cousins are considered to be siblings

consanguinity

blood relationship

Kinship by marriage

Union of two families where the family and relatives from both sides are related by affinity

This is your in-laws

Your spouse technically is not your kin it is their family that becomes your kin

Spiritual Kinship

kinship link through religion

Godparent in Christianity

incest taboo can apply

Social/fictive kinship

Defined through different social roles of importance for a specific community- not based on any specific criteria

example: Wet Nurse

Descent

cultural principle that defines social categories through culturally recognized parent-child connections.

Defined by ancestry and so exist through time

2 types: Bilateral and unilateral

bilateral descent

a kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important

unilateral descent

the tracing of kinship through one parent only

two types: Patrilineage and matrilineage

Patrilineage

a lineage formed by descent in the male line

A social group formed by people connected through father-child links (more common).

Matrilineage

a social group formed by people connected by mother-child links

Not an exact mirror of patrilineage this could mean the men on the maternal side are most important

this doesn't mean matriarchal

Lineage

Important in legal terms (they control the land, provide political and social status for their members)

Clan

A wider group; includes several (or more) lineages. Members of a clan believe they are related, even if they can no longer specify the links.

Different types of marriages

many different types of marriages

based on:

- The number of people how many people are there in a marriage?

- Who you are allowed to marry

- Where newly married people live

Not just about two people who love each other but rather an affair of property, inheritance and children

monogamous marriage

a type of marriage in which one person is married to another person- can be same sex or opposite sex.

just one legal marriage

does not imply fidelity

polygamous marriage

a type of marriage in which one person is married to multiple husbands or wives

Polygyny

a form of marriage in which men have more than one wife

Polyandry

a form of marriage in which women have more than one husband

group marriage

several women and several men are married to one another simultaneously

(very rare)

Who is eligible to be married

All cultures put restrictions

Incest taboo

some cultures have certain groups where people can come from

Exogamy

marriage outside the tribe, caste, or social group

Endogamy

marriage between people of the same social category/group

Neolocal

Refers to the pattern in which newly married couples set up their own households

Matrilocal

refers to the pattern in which married couples live with or near the wives' parents

Patrilocal

refers to the pattern in which married couples live with or near the husbands' parents

bride price

A groom's family gives compensation to bride's family

this is because the brides family is losing a member

bride service

A groom provides work or other service to bride's family

go work on the family farm

Dowry

A bride's family gives compensation to groom's family

Grooms' family is losing a member

Not completely set in stone- brides family may pay to compensate other factors like class differences

Marriage as an economic exchange

A legal and economic union (between families)

This is very important for rich and powerful families- marriages were strategic (Bridgerton)

Many times this has economic implications- losing/gaining a family member

Worldview

This is an extremely important concept

Learned, shared cultural assumptions about the world is and how it works

This is an encompassing picture of reality

Worldview can be shaped by multiple factors

Early Anthropology view on worldviews

Believed there was irrational beliefs of other groups

How to research worldviews

Focus on metaphors and symbols

(these are the ideas and symbolic actions used in a culture)

Metaphors

Commonly used in languages

they take the language from one domain and apply it to another

Metaphors often emphasize the aspects of certain experiences while downplaying others

This can reveal certain aspects of the worldview

example: "killer" T cells in the body or virus "attacking" the body

Symbols

Symbolic actions can tell us about the worldview- myth, ritual, literature, art, games, music etc

These can be public displays of culture- which can display the worldview

Ways of Knowing

Worldviews build different ways of knowing- how the world operates and how knowledge is built in society

Cultures have their own defining aspects that influence their ways of understanding the world

supernatural

beyond the laws of nature/natural ways

Defining religion

there is no definition of religion that can satisfy everyone

Often times features a deity but not always

Magic and religion often cross

Magic

Can be seen as more practical

that there is an immediate response from an action

can be closely related to science

Immediate and proportionate return

Anthropological Study of Supernatural

Started with magic first - focused on smaller groups that practice magic (not necessarily organized religion)

Today this has changed and you can study all religions and societies

Not limited to belief systems outside the west

James Frazor

Evolutionist

Three stages of development magic, religion and science

believed there was two types of magic:

Imitative- making a like item (voodoo)

Contact (contagious)- taking something that was that persons (hair, clothing etc)

Functions of Religion

creating community, instilling values, renewing faith, providing reasons, solving problems

Creating Community

Not an individual thing. Rituals and other aspects of religion bring community together.

instilling values

To teach ethnics and values, guide behaviour, etc. Rituals and religious myths play this role

Renewing faith

Through rituals and practicing of religion, people build their fait as an important aspect of their life. It can bring them sense of purpose, happiness, acceptance, belonging, etc.

providing reasons

Religion often gives explanation for life events and why things happen in a certain way.

solving problems

Through prayer and other aspects of religion. People often turn to religion when they have a problem and need help from a higher being to solve it. Many rituals have a specific goal of solving problems.

myth

Stories that explain events, highlight values and appropriate behaviours

carry a message

doesn't mean untrue

Recount how the world came to be - how the world works

Are myths "flawed"?

Western science has dismissed myths as flawed

Similarities however are notice between scientific origin stories and non-scientific origin stories

the natural world vs the social world

ritual

Symbolic practices that are ordered and regularly repeated.

Connect others in the community

Four Parts of Ritual

- Is a repetitive social practice that is shared and scripted. It consists of sacred performances of symbolically meaningful cultural narratives.

- Is set off from the social routines of everyday life

- Adheres to a characteristic, culturally defined schema

- Is closely connected to specific set of ideas encoded in myth

rites of passage

rituals marking the passage from one status to another

Three phases of rites of passage

separation, liminality(transition), aggregation (incorporation)

Seperation

the person is separated from the general group/society

this also means separation from the old position and from normal time

Liminality

neither part of the old nor of the new social position

do the movements needed to transition

reaggregation

ritual passenger is reintroduced into society in his or her new position

supernatural beings

Personified or embodied gods, spirits, ghosts, demons, etc

supernatural forces

Disembodied powers (can bring good or bad luck).

Not as personified

Deities

gods and goddesses - most common in hierarchical societies

Polytheism

Belief in many gods

Monotheism

Belief in one God

Ancestral Veneration

worship of ancestors

believe they watch over the community

ancestral spirits

Animinism

spirits inhabit natural objects (beings inside)

Animatism

belief that supernatural forces reside in everyday things (forces inside objects)

Priests and Priestesses

people who performed religious ceremonies

often in stratified societies

main obligation is this role

Shamans

Religious practitioners who specialize in communicating with spirits, ancestors and deities

may have other responsibilities

Have contact with both the natural and supernatural world

Originated in Asian cultures (Siberia) this is not an indigenous term

There is often ambiguity

Witchcraft

Witchcraft is the performance of magic by humans, often through innate supernatural powers, whether intentional or self-aware or not.

Azande Witchcraft

Classification of misfortunes that are harmful to people. A mechanism for explaining unfortunate events. Accepted as common, routine, and part of everyday existence.

the Azande consulted oracles (invisible forces to which people addressed questions about specific individuals).

Evans-Pritchard

Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic Among the Azande

-explained their witchcraft as a rational system and not random superstitious

-Story about a collapsed barn: coincidences such as the barn falling were attributed to witchcraft (the barn fell on the people at that exact time because of witchcraft)

Sustainability

The ability to keep something in existence, to support or continue a practice indefinitely

This cannot be with earth so instead sustainability focuses on practices that ensure the well being of people, today and in the future

Three Pillars of Sustainability

social, environmental, economic

environmental sustainability

The ability of the environment to renew resources & accommodate waste at the same rate at which resources are used & waste is generated. = Humans should protect the environment.

Social sustainability

The ability of social systems to provide for the needs of their people = Equity, justice, diversity, human rights.

Economic sustainability

The ability of the economy to support growth while ensuring quality of life for all members of society (not easy to achieve)

Economy should be sustainable- able to continue for generations

Concentric model of sustainability

1.Adapted from the Three Pillars approach.

2.Places greater emphasis on the environment; without a healthy environment, social and economic systems would not function.

3.Assumes that the environment is the priority, and an interface between social and economic systems is secondary.

Caring for try environment: Western

· Particularly bad here

o Industrialization, rapid economic growth, intensive agriculture, capitalism, economies of scale

Indigenous peoples and sustainability

indigenous communities around the world have sustainable practices (do not overuse resources, do not create too much waste)

Political ecology

Examines complex relationship between the environment, economics and politics

- the role power plays in the distribution of it

- developing nations resources are used by developed nations

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

indigenous ecological knowledge and its relationship with resource management strategies

Not in line with mainstream science- doesn't use the scientific method

Eco-fascism

Often blames overpopulation, namely, people outside of the West

Claim that they want to protect the environment:

-There are red flags

-Blame people - should get rid of inferior people (poor, disabled)

-Not sustainable- sustainability protects people

population growth

-Rapid growth: In 1900, 1.6 billion people; in 2012 - 7 billion

-Main problem: Food and water shortages in low-income countries

-There is enough food for all people in the world - it just not distributed equally.

-These inequalities due to power differences (those with least power suffer the most).

-The growth of high-income countries and their economies has the most severe effect on environmental resources in low-income countries.

- ALL politics and power imbalances

Medical Anthropology

Focuses on health and healing, cultural ideas about illness and healing