Chapter 9: Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood

What is the definition of autobiographical memory?

A personal narrative that helps children acquire an enduring sense of themselves

What is the process of differential reinforcement in gender role acquisition?

The process by which girls and boys are rewarded for engaging in ways that are considered gender appropriate in their culture

Define effortful control.

The inhibition of impulsive or dominant actions

According to Freudian theory, what is the role of the ego?

It mediates between the id and the social world, allowing children to control and regulate behaviour

What occurs during the Electra complex in Freudian theory?

Young girls blame their mother for their “castrated” condition, transfer their love to their father, and compete with their mother for their father’s affection

What is empathy?

Sharing another person’s emotions and feelings

How is ethnic identity defined?

A sense of oneself as a member of a particular ethnic group

What is ethnic socialization?

Ethnic-based messages communicated to children

What is gender identity?

A personal sense of self as a boy or girl

What is a gender role?

A set of beliefs about how boys/men and girls/women should behave

What is a gender schema?

A mental model containing information about boys and girls that is used to process gender-relevant information

What does the term gender segregation refer to?

The preference of girls to play with other girls, and of boys to play with other boys

Define heteronomous morality according to Piaget.

The tendency of young children to define morality in terms of objective consequences and externally imposed controls

In Freudian theory, what is the id?

The mental structure present at birth that is the main source of psychological energy; it is unconscious, pleasure-seeking, and demands satisfaction of bodily drives

What is the psychological process of identification?

A process in which children try to look, act, feel, and be like significant people in their social environment

Describe Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt.

The stage where children face the challenge of declaring autonomy and existence as individuals while beginning to conform to social roles and moral standards

What is modeling in the context of gender identity?

The process by which children observe and imitate individuals of the same sex as themselves

What is the Oedipus complex?

The desire young boys have to get rid of their father and take his place in their mother’s affections

What is personal distress?

A self-focused emotional reaction to another person’s distress

What are the two parts of personal identity described in the text?

The I-self (sense of self persisting over time) and the me-self (sense of personal characteristics like appearance and abilities)

How is personality formation defined?

The process through which children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving in a wide variety of circumstances

When does the phallic stage occur in Freudian theory?

Around the age of 3 or 4 years, when children start to regard their own genitals as a major source of pleasure

What is prosocial behaviour?

Behavior such as sharing, helping, caregiving, and showing compassion

Define relational aggression.

Aggression intended to harm someone’s friendships or exclude an individual from the group

What is self-regulation?

The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviours

What is the core premise of social domain theory?

The moral domain, the social conventional domain, and the personal domain have distinct rules that vary in application and consequences

Define socialization.

The process by which children acquire the standards, values, and knowledge of their society

What is socioemotional competence?

The ability to behave appropriately in social situations that evoke strong emotions

What is the superego in Freudian terms?

The conscience; it represents the authority of the child’s parents and sits in stern judgment of the ego

How does sympathy differ from empathy?

Sympathy involves feelings of sorrow or concern for another, whereas empathy is sharing another person’s emotions

How do boys identify with their fathers in the Psychodynamic view?

Through differentiation from their mothers and resolving the Oedipus complex

What is sex-role constancy in the Constructivist view?

An understanding that their sex remains the same no matter what

At what age is gender segregation in children's play clearly established?

By 3 years of age

What did research by Kenneth and Mamie Clark find regarding African American children?

Children in the 1930s and 1940s tended to make more positive attributions to light-colored rather than dark-colored dolls

Give an example of a 'Social convention' infraction according to social domain theory.

Chewing gum in class, talking back to a teacher, or a boy wearing a barrette

Give an example of a 'Moral rule' infraction related to fairness and rights.

Refusing to take turns

Give an example of a 'Personal sphere' infraction.

Making loud noises while eating or not brushing teeth

According to Vygotsky, what type of play is fundamental to the emergence of self-regulation?

Sociodramatic play

How do Chinese parents typically use 'shaming techniques' according to the text?

They use them when their children perform poorly, consistent with the philosophy of Confucianism

What are children in the United States socialized to strive for?

Personal achievements

What is the source of aggression according to Len Berkowitz?

Negative feelings aroused by an unpleasant event, which can be modified by cognitive processes

How do many animal species establish social dominance without bloodshed?

Through innate behaviors for signaling defeat, such as a submissive crouching posture

According to the summary, what are the two paths along which children's social and emotional lives develop?

The path of socialization and the path of personality formation

What characterises young children's self-descriptions of their personal identity?

They are focused on disconnected concrete attributes and are often unrealistically positive

When does the superego become a major force in the personality?

In middle childhood

According to social domain theory, the boundaries between the three categories of rules vary based on what?

Across and within cultures

What is considered a cornerstone of children's development?

Self-regulation

How do expressions of aggression differ between boys and girls after age 2?

Boys engage in more physical aggression and girls engage in less

What determines if empathic feelings become sympathy or personal distress?

Emotional regulation

What does the cultural view say mediates the acquisition of gender roles?

Cultural conceptions and stereotypes of gender

A personal narrative that helps children acquire an enduring sense of themselves is known as __________ memory.

Autobiographical

In acquiring gender roles, the process by which girls and boys are rewarded for engaging in ways considered gender appropriate is called __________ reinforcement.

differential

The inhibition of impulsive or dominant actions is referred to as __________ control.

Effortful

In Freudian theory, the __________ mediates between the id and the social world, allowing children to regulate behavior.

ego

The __________ complex is the process by which young girls blame their mother for their “castrated” condition and compete for their father’s affection.

Electra

Sharing another person’s emotions and feelings is defined as __________.

empathy

A sense of oneself as a member of a particular ethnic group is called __________ identity.

ethnic

The ethnic-based messages communicated to children are referred to as ethnic __________.

socialization

A personal sense of self as a boy or girl is known as __________ identity.

Gender

A set of beliefs about how boys/men and girls/women should behave is called a gender __________.

role

A __________ schema is a mental model containing information about boys and girls used to process gender-relevant information.

gender

The term for the preference of girls to play with other girls and boys to play with other boys is gender __________.

segregation

Piaget’s term for young children’s tendency to define morality in terms of objective consequences is __________ morality.

heteronomous

The __________ is the unconscious, pleasure-seeking mental structure present at birth in Freudian theory.

id

The psychological process in which children try to look, act, and feel like significant people in their environment is called __________.

identification

According to Erikson, the stage children face in early childhood is __________ versus guilt.

initiative

The process by which children observe and imitate individuals of the same sex is called __________.

modeling

The desire young boys have to get rid of their father and take his place in their mother’s affections is the __________ complex.

Oedipus

A self-focused emotional reaction to another person’s distress is called __________ distress.

personal

Personal identity includes a sense of self persisting over time, known as the __________.

I-self

The part of personal identity consisting of objectively known characteristics like appearance and abilities is the __________.

me-self

The process through which children develop unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving is __________ formation.

personality

The __________ stage in Freudian theory begins around age $3$ or $4$ years when children regard genitals as a source of pleasure.

phallic

Behavior such as sharing, helping, caregiving, and showing compassion is known as __________ behavior.

prosocial

Aggression intended to harm someone’s friendships or exclude them from a group is __________ aggression.

relational

The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors is called __________.

self-regulation

The theory that moral, social conventional, and personal domains have distinct rules is called __________ theory.

social domain

The process by which children acquire the standards, values, and knowledge of their society is __________.

socialization

The ability to behave appropriately in social situations that evoke strong emotions is __________ competence.

socioemotional

In Freudian terms, the __________ represents the authority of the child’s parents and acts as a conscience.

superego

Feelings of sorrow or concern for another are defined as __________.

sympathy

In the social learning view, boys and girls observe and imitate sex-typed behaviors because they are __________ for doing so.

rewarded

According to the constructivist view of gender, children must first develop sex-role __________ before identity guides their actions.

constancy

The cultural view of gender acquisition suggests the process is __________ by cultural conceptions and stereotypes.

mediated

Gender segregation in children’s play is usually clearly established by the age of __________ years.

$$3$$

Research by Kenneth and Mamie Clark in the $1930s$ found that African American children made positive attributions to __________-colored dolls.

light

In social domain theory, rules related to physical harm and fairness are called __________ rules.

moral

School behavior, forms of address, and attire are considered infractions of __________ conventions.

social

Rules related to personal habits, hygiene, and social events fall under the __________ sphere.

personal

Vygotsky argued that __________ play is fundamental to the emergence of self-regulation.

sociodramatic

Chinese parents commonly use __________ techniques when their children perform poorly, reflecting Confucian philosophy.

shaming

Children in the __________ are socialized to take pride in personal achievements.

United States

Children in __________ are encouraged to strive to meet social obligations and feel honor in doing so.

China

After age __________ years, boys engage in more physical aggression than girls.

$$2$$

Aggression is seen in many animal species as a natural consequence of competition for __________.

resources

In groups of human children and other animals, __________ hierarchies can help control aggression.

dominance

Len Berkowitz suggests that aggression is modified by __________ processes following negative feelings.

cognitive

Development of empathy in early childhood may correspond to a decrease in __________.

egocentrism

Internalization of adult standards results in the formation of the superego at about age __________ years.

$$5$$

Young children's self-descriptions are usually focused on disconnected __________ attributes.

concrete