ANEQ 320 Exam 2

Glycogenesis

Make glycogen

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen

Gluconeogenesis

Making new sugars from non-CHO

Glycolysis

Breakdown of glucose

1 glucose to 2 pyruvate

Three phases of glycolysis

Activation, cleavage, oxidation

What happens to pyruvate in the presence of O2?

Enters TCA Cycle

What happens to pyruvate without the presence of O2?

Becomes lactate

Amylose

Maltose linked together in a straight chain

Glycogen

Stored form of glucose

Amylopectin with a lot more branching

Muscle and liver

Amylopectin

Branched form of amylose

Types of polysaccharides

Starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin

Three types of starch

Amylose, amylopectin, glycogen

Insulin

Glucose out of blood into cells

Increases glycolysis, decreases glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Salivary amylase

Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch

Amylase

Hydrolyses 1-4 linkages in carbohydrates

Amylose to maltose, amylopectin to maltose and isomaltose

Lactase

Breaks lactose into glucose and galactose

Sucrase

Breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose

Maltase

Breaks maltose into glucose

Isomaltase

Breaks isomaltose into glucose

Enzymes from duodenal mucosal cells

Lactase, sucrase, maltase, isomaltase

TCA cycle

Aerobic and in mitochondria

Generates ATP, NADH, FADH

Oxidative phosphorylation

ATP from NADH and FADH

Glucagon

Increases blood glucose

Increases glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, decreases glycolysis

Epinephrine

Fight or flight hormone

Increases blood glucose

Decrease in muscle glycogen

Glycosuria

Sugar in urine

Polyuria

Excessive urination

Polydipsea

Excessive thirst

Diabetes mellitus (type 1)

Cannot make or use insulin

Fat metabolism and ketone bodies increases

Type 2 diabetes

Defective insulin uptake

Onset later in life

Gestational diabetes

Resistance to insulin

Modified metabolic state of dam to support energy to fetus

Ketosis

Excess ketone production

Hyperglycemia

Treated by getting more glucose into blood

Animals subjected to ketosis

High producing dairy cows (after partuition)

Ewes right before partuition

Hydrogenation

Adding H to make unsaturated fat more saturated

In rumen

Fatty acids classification

Number of carbons : number of double bonds

Omega/n- fatty acid classification

Based on methyl group

Delta fatty acid classification

Based on carboxyl group

Essential fatty acids

Mammals cannot synthesize double bond greater than n-9

Linoleic and linolenic acid

HDL

High-density lipoprotein

LDL

Low-density lipoprotein

Lipase breaks down

Lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

Lingual lipase

From sublingual salivary glands

Milk digestion

Pancreatic lipase

Produced in pancreas

Bile salts

Emulsifies fat

Produced in the liver

Secreted and stored in gallbladder

Intestinal lipase

Secreted from intestinal walls

Colipase

Binds to and protects lipase

Binds bile salts in micelles

Synthesized by pancrease

ATP from glycolysis

8

ATP from TCA

28

Total ATP per glucose molecule

36

Bile-salt stimulated lipase

Inactive form in milk produced by mammary glands

Resistant to gastric digestion

Retinol into milk fat

Emulsification

Small intestine churning breaking fat into small particles via churning

Micelles

Forms in small intestine

Hydrophobic

Absorption of fat in small intestine

Micelle interacts with brush border

Triglycerides form

Chylomicron formed, enters lymph, and then blood

Lipoproteins used in ruminants

VLDL

VFAs

Acetate, propionate (gluconeogenic), butyrate

Fatty acid synthase

Enzyme in fatty acid synthesis

Starts with Acetyl CoA, adds 2 C at a time up to 16

Lipolysis

Breakdown of fat for energy to be used except by brain and red blood cells

Beta oxidation

Breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA

12 ATP x 8 Acetal-CoA + 35 ATP = 121 ATP

What increases fat deposition and decreases fat mobilization

Insulin

Ketone bodies

Fat moblized during high energy demands

Needs oxyloacetate

What decreases fat deposition and increases fat moblization

Epinephrine, cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone

Obesity affects

Production and maintenance

Fatty liver

Abnormal liver function

Familial hyperlipidemia

High levels of lipoproteins

Hypercholesterolemia

Heart disease

Atheroslerosis

Increase in LDL cholesterol causes plaque in blood vessels

Most abundant macromolecule

Protein

Essential amino acids

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Phenylalanine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

What AA does a chick need?

Glycine

Most rapid deficiency

Arginine in cats

Higher protein digestibility when ___ complex.

More

Denaturation

Changes to chemical, physical, or biological properties

pH or heat (decreases digestibility)

Fibrous proteins have ___ digestibility.

Low

Globular proteins have ___ digestibility.

High

Complex proteins

Contain non-protein groups

Glycoproteins, lipoproteins, phosphoproteins

Protein functions

Transport

Structure

Enzymes

Hormones

Defense

Muscle Contraction

Storage

Energy

Lipid function

Cell membranes

Energy (2.25x carbs)

Carrier

EFA's (blood clotting and inflammation)

Limiting amino acids

1. lysine

2. tryptophan

3. methionine

Quality proteins have...

Balance of essential AAs

High in limiting AAs

Animal protein sources

High quality

Plant protein sources

Can be high quality

Important for livestock

Non-protein N

Good source for ruminants especially when on high forage diets

Urea

HCl in protein digestion

Denatures protein and increases surface area

Fundic region

Pepsinogen

Activated by HCl into pepsin to break peptide bonds

Trypsinogen

Activated by enterokinase into trypsin

Chymotrysinogen

Activated by trypsin into chymotrypsin

Procarboxypeptidase

Activated by chymotrypsin into carboxypeptidase

Pancreatic enzymes

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase

Breaks down polypeptides

Enterokinase

Intestinal enzyme that activates trypsinogen to trypsin

Aminopeptidase

Intestinal enzyme that breaks di- tri- to AAs

Apsorbtion of proteins primarily in ___ via ___.

Jejunum

Passive diffusion and active transport

Immunoglobins in colostrum absorbtion

Young animals utilize phagocytosis

Caprophagy

Eating feces

Method of large intestine absorption

Deamination

Removal of amino group from AA

Transamination

Amino group from one AA is transferred to a carbon compound to form a new amino acid

Carbon skeleton in catabolism of proteins

Becomes energy, other AAs, fat

Ammonia in catabolism of proteins

Excreted as urea

Ruminants recycle

Simple proteins

Only contain AAs

Fibrous, globular

Proteins vary in solubility which effects

Digestibility, leaching

Proteins as a buffer

Amino end donates H+

Carboxyl end accepts H+