'Comparative Politics

Democracy

A regime characterized by rule by the people, emphasizing rights and liberties of citizens.

State Capacity

A measure of a state's ability to obtain its political goals and perform basic functions via scope (reach) and strength

Legitimacy

Value whereby an entity is recognized as right and proper, resulting in obedience from the people.

Sovereignty

The ability of a state to carry out actions without interference from outside forces.

State Fragility

Loss of capacity and legitimacy, making states vulnerable to failure.

State Failure

A situation where a state cannot perform basic functions necessary for its existence.

Democratization

The process by which a regime becomes more democratic.

Modernization Theory

The idea that democracy is traced to broad social changes due to economic development and urbanization.

Civil Society

A place outside of formal organizations where civilians can organize themselves, which can increase democracy.

Multi-Party Democracy

A political system in which two or more parties compete for power.

Actors in Democracy

Individuals or groups (like presidents, parties, and religious organizations) that influence political outcomes.

Bureaucracy

An organization operating under complex rules that pursues common goals through established policies.

Procedural Definition of Democracy

Democracy defined by the adherence to certain procedures and rules (free elections or no?)

Direct Democracy l

A form of democracy in which people have direct participation in decision-making.

Cage of Norms

Restrictions on societal behavior that occur in the absence of state authority.

Bellicist Theory

The idea that states emerge from the need for centralized power during conflicts.

Substantive Definition of Democracy

Definition of democracy based on the satisfaction of specific categories, such as reduction of inequality.

Legislative Branch

The part of a state that makes laws and checks the powers of the executive.

Judiciary

The branch responsible for interpreting laws and responding to civil and criminal cases.

Executive Branch

The part of government responsible for devising and executing law.

State System

The condition wherein many international actors are recognized as states.

Ways states rise

traditional ( habit, tradition), charismatic ( personality/ beliefs), rational- legal ( laws & rules)

Functions of a state

• Taxation (most important- fund states)

• measuring/ recording economic activity / population

• defense/ policing

• Economic management 

• Human capital (public health,  education)

• Welfare

• Infrastructure

State of nature

No state authority - anarchic

MSS

system to study cases w/similar factors but different outcomes

MDS

compare two cases w/ different factors but similar outcomes

Economic theories

States arise via the expansion of capital

Cultural theory

States arise as a manifestation of culture

World society theory

state system’s features are cultural/globally diffused- john Meyer

Political vs civil rights

political rights- to participate in political life (vote, speech)

     * civil rights- participate in civil life ( assembly, access information)

Democratic breakdown

When a regime looses democratic status

Transition

A regime goes from authoritarian to democratic

Democracy types

• Constitutional republic- no monarch-policy set out

• Constitutional monarchy- monarch under rules of democratic constitution

• Representative democracy- politicians/ institutions represent the majority

• Multi party democracy- two+ parties compete for power

Referendum

Vote on a specific issue

Direct democracy

• emphasis on civilian involvement in politics

      * ex: civilian assemblies, community councils

Modernization theory

traces democracy to broad social change (due to economics/urbanization)

Cultural theories

democracy arises from cultural values (ex: Asian valves (harmony/stability) over individuality- authoritative)

Structural theories

emerging democracies determined by global trends (democracy ↓ post -WWII)

Domestic Institutional theories

democracy increases w/ rise of domestic peace-keeping institutions (police, government)

Actor agency theories

smaller actors (ex: individuals [Nelson Mandela], interest groups) cause regime change

              *democratization is usually due to multiple theories in combination

Indicators of state capacity

• fiscal: the more money a country generated, the more action they can commit.

• informative: the more into a country has on its people, the more power it exerts

• Infrastructure: post offices, gov agencies (can the people be readily reached)

• Competitive market for exchange of goods+ services

• Public transport (railroads, roads [spread of ideas])

• Communications (post offices, telephone lines [spread of ideas])

• Mass education (human capital)

Reasons states can't always reach full capacity

• geography (too vast a region to rule over)

• Euro colonization ( weakened from get go)

• Elitist resilience to centralized reform

Why is statehood different nowadays than the past.

Now you also need international recognition to achieve statehood

Medieval Europe vs middle East

Med Euro- feudal lords and peasants - centralized authority (small scale) Rise of statehood

Middle East- large territory w/o centralized power, harder rise to statehood

Authoritarianism

a characteristic of a non democratic regime (characterized by behaviors or ideologies [socialism/fascism])

Democratic breakdown

democratic → non democratic

Authoritarian persistence

continuation of authoritarian regime (democratization is impossible)

Hybrid regime

mix of authoritarian and democratic elements

Totalitarian

Totalitarian regime- regime that aims to control every element of population life [Nazi Germany])

• One leader, enforcement of ideology, economic control, secret police, re-education via fear-mongering

Theocracy

regime ruled by religious leader, strict  implement of religion

Personalist regime

regime governed by one person

• Rules at vices of person, may implement ideology

• May be a ‘temporary fix’, but the leader will then say, “we’re not ready for democracy,I'll still lead”

Bureaucratic - authoritarian

control by an elite group (often military) [common in Latin America]

• Not brief caretakers, do not push ideology (really), like party - dictatorship (China)

Iliberal democracy

polity w/ some democratic features w/o guarantee/protection of civil/political rights [fair elections @ times]

Delegate democracy

regime where electorate delegates authority to gov (rules as they see fit)

Electoral authoritarianism

appears democratic (elections, poles) but gov/ind remains powerful

Competitive authoritarianism

some political comp but not enough to be a democracy

Single authoritarian persistence

continuation of the same regime accompanied by major changes within (ex: fostering of economic growth)

Substitution authoritarianism persistence

the ↓ of one regime gives way to the ↑ of anther

Regime maintenance

the upholding of a regime via benefits (economic↑ for citizens) or costs (oppression)

Democratic breakdown

• the lose of democratic status by a polity

     - can be quick (military coup) or slow (gradual ↓of freedoms &↑of rigged elections)

Historical institution theories

groups form overtime all wanting to benefit (land owners stay rich, religious institutions stay influential) thus authoritarianism is most desirable

Poverty / inequality theory

as poverty ↑, desire for political participation ↓ (worried about next meal, not free speech) (can exploit income inequality)

Weak / fragile state theory

• struggling states are more likely to ↑ authoritarianism

       - caveat: “predatory states” - a strong state that is seized by a powerful group for the group’s benefit

Cultural theories

cultural valves ↑ chance a certain gov forms (Confucian values→ authoritarian)

Collective action theory

theory that individuals act together to achieve a common goal, often addressing public goods or social movements. Must be within public interest of person (otherwise free ride)

Anna Kerina principle

Idea that democracies are very similar in their success, but autocracies fail for different reasons

How To quell citizen discontent

Repression: use force via police/military to ↓ civilians

redistribution: distribute public goods/wealth to appease citizen

co-opt: bring citizens into ruling coalition (↑ loyalty)

manipulation: use propaganda censorship to change public opinion

Democratic backsliding

the processes in which a regime declines from democratic status (often state led/deliberate)

Causes of democratic backsliding

• polarization: process in which elites a/o public divide over issue (democratic vs republican) [defend like religion] [↓ discussion and radicalizes] (US and Europe)

• Crises (economic, political, pandemic, refugee migration): as crises occur, leaders can use this to curb right and circumvent democratic processes

Revolution

a large scale action problem in which large scale restructuring is attempted/occurs

Contention

collective pursuits of public goods outside formal institutions

Collective action

joint efforts to ↑ a preferred social outcome

Formal institutions

• institutions usually governed by formal rules and linked to States/corporations

       *peaceful resolutions are funneled through institutions (local committees, governments, etc)

Social movements

organized collector action towards political change

Social Revolutions

revolutions to achieve social change

Insurgency

contention via militarized action (Asymmetrical warfare)

Civil war

sustained military actions between domestic actors

Terrorism

Use/ threatened violence target at non-military targets to advance a political agenda

• can be state terrorism (carried out by state) or no

Everyday Resistance

• efforts to resist/obstruct authority via non-organized action (work slowdown)

          *all aim to radically transform political, social, and economic life

Civil society

place outside formal institutions where people can organize (councils, media) [↑social movements]

Social networks

structure of social ties between individuals (organize to protest for a common goal)

Organize

continued coordination of collective action for a common goal

Social movement organization

organization created to lay social movements overtime

Iron law of oligarchy

• Robert Michel's idea that collective action ↑ new elites

           * when groups have conflicting ideas, leaders must achieve mobilization (continued engagement of individuals/groups in share contention), and some will rise up to resolve conflict → new leaders

          *once in power, leaders may hesitate to relinquish  

          * caveat: not always reliant on just leaders → collective action ↑ social movements (Birmingham bus boycotts)

Political revolution

seek to change political institutions

Coup d’etat

• use/threatened use of military force to make non-electoral charge

          * political revision can ↑ socio - economic change

Anti colonial revolutions

subjugated people vs ruling colonial powers

3rd world revolutions

John Foran- because revolution in 3rd world countries often include international actors (US influence) or institutions (UN), 3rd world revs have certain characteristics

Individualization

link problems to personal goals not collective goals

Relative deprivation/social disequilibrium (strain theory):

relative deprivation:  having less than a reference group (often eco), causing ↑ revs

                             *w/ social media - does not ↑ revoluti

Resource mobilization/ political opprotunitiy

• do people have access to revolutionary methods

                             * as State capacity ↓, revs ↑ (cannot be stifled)

                             * organized resources (can people communicate to ↑ [factory workers vs villagers]

Rational choice theory

• joining rev depends on individual benefits, low risk

                   * best choice: free ride!

Framing/cultural theory

• frame a revolution in a way to incentivize joining

                          *use nationalism, ideology, idea of revolution

Why is it hard to see revolutions coming?

Individuals must choose to publicly support or oppose a dictatorship (can have public and private preference-DIFF)

• Preference falsification: falsifying preference in public to not risk danger of opposing a regime

As protests become larger, harder to track individual feeling/punish singular people, a person may feel inclined to join

• Revolutionary threshold: size of a protest a person is willing to participate in

       *people have different thresholds (lower threshold =join small group, high threshold= needs lot of participation) [hard to see revolutions coming because people don’t always act on true preferences)

Political culture

how norms, ideology, and other practices shape formal power

Modernity

type of society ↑ economic growth and state strengthening

MoDernization

process in which a state ↑ modern, whether politically/economically

Secularism

the favoring of non-religious cultur

Characteristics of modrrnity

• Political/economic growth

• Looser social classes

• ↑ centralized power and national identity

Ideology

systemically coordinated/cognitively salient set of ideals (rights, their origin, etc)