Science Exam 2026

Know the components of our atmosphere and the percentages at which they occur

Made up of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases like CO2, Ar, and other particles (1%)

Know the layers of the atmosphere and the order in which they occur (you do not need to know specific altitudes)

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Exosphere

Troposphere characteristics

Most dense layer; Weather occurs; Air moves in all directions

Temp decreases with higher altitude

Stratosphere characteristics

Contains ozone layer; Absorbs and scatters UV radiation; 99.9% of the mass is found below the stratosphere

Temp increases with higher altitude

Mesosphere characteristics

Meteors from space will slow and burn up; First layer in atmosphere to have molecules close enough together to produce friction

Temp decreases with higher altitude

Thermosphere characteristics

Space Shuttle and ISS orbits; Ionosphere begins, which create auroras near the north poles; Hottest layer (wouldn't feel the heat because the molecules are so far apart)

Temp increases with higher altitude

Exosphere characteristics

No clear boundary; Contains the fewest atoms and molecules; Least dense layer; Molecules move fast and if they collide with each other they will escape

Where is the ozone layer found, what is its function, and what is it composed of?

Found in the Stratosphere; Absorbs UV rays from the Sun; Composed of Ozone (O3)

Understand how air pressure and density change with altitude

Higher air density → lower altitudes

Low air density → higher altitudes

What is the source of most of Earth's heat?

The Sun

Understand how different surfaces of the Earth absorb and reflect heat differently

Land absorbs heat and cools off faster than water

What causes seasons?

Seasons happen because of Earth's tilt on its axis

Radiation

Light to heat

Ex: Sunny days are warm

Conduction

Transfer of heat by contact

Ex: The ground can warm the air above it

Convection

Transfer of heat through fluids

Ex: Warm air rises/Cold air sinks

Understand the principles explaining the behaviors of fluids

Fluids move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure

Fast moving fluids create low pressure

Land breeze

Cooler air over the land rushes into the warm air over the water

Sea breeze

Cooler air over the water rushes into the warm air over the land

How do radiation, conduction, and convection fit in with land/sea breezes?

Radiation: The Sun

NO RADIATION FOR LANDBREEZE

Conduction: Air over the land/water

Convection: The rising/sinking of air

How are winds named?

Are named by the direction in which they originate from

Why do Global Winds happen?

By the unequal heating of the Sun for different latitudes

How does the Coriolis effect change Global Winds?

In the Northern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the right

In the South Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the left

Location and direction of trade winds

0°-30° latitude; NH: Southwest, SH: Northwest

Doldrums

Near equator with little to no winds

Location and direction of prevailing winds

30°-60° latitude; NH: Northeast, SH: Southeast

Location and direction of polar winds

Above 60° latitude; NH: Southwest, SH: Northwest

Jet Streams - which impacts North America and direction of flow

Polar Jet Stream; Flows West to East

Evaporation

Water vapor rises into the atmosphere

Condensation

Water vapor cools, forming into clouds

Precipitation

Water falls from the clouds

Transpiration

Plants release water vapor

Runoff

Water running along the surface to reach a body of water

Clouds

Composition of clouds (high, mid, and low level)

high clouds: Ice crystals

mid-level clouds: Water droplets

low clouds: Water droplets

Condensation nuclei

A solid particle from the atmosphere on which water condenses and a cloud forms

Ex: Ice, dust, pollen, pollution, salt, etc.

Know how clouds are named

Based on shape and altitude

Prefixes and suffixes used to name clouds

cirro/cirrus

nimbo/nimbus

cumulo/cumulus

alto

strato/stratus

Cirro/Cirrus

Curl/Wispy high level clouds

Nimbo/Nimbus

Rain clouds- darker bottom

Cumulo/Cumulus

Pite/Accumulation; Pillowy, cotton clouds

Alto

High/tall; Prefix for mid level clouds

Strato/Stratus

Spread/layer; Fog/blanket

Types of clouds

Cirrus

Cirrostratus

Cirrocumulus

Altocumulus

Altostratus

Cumulonimbus

Stratus

Cumulus

Stratocumulus

Nimbostratus

What weather is associated with certain types of clouds

Cumulonimbus --> Thunderstorms

Review 5 types of air masses

Arctic (A)

Continental Polar (cP)

Continental Tropical (cT)

Maritime Polar (mP)

Maritime Tropical (mT)

Arctic (A) --> Location and characteristics

Location: North Pole

Characteristics: Bitter cold and dry

Continental polar (cP) --> Location and characteristics

Location: On land

Characteristics: Dry, cold

Continental tropical (cT) --> Location and characteristics

Location: On land

Characteristics: Dry, hot

Maritime polar (mP) --> Location and characteristics

Location: On water

Characteristics: Humid, cold

Maritime tropical (mT) --> Location and characteristics

Location: On water

Characteristics: Humid, hot

Understand the difference between weather and climate

Weather: Short term changing atmospheric conditions

Climate: Long term weather patterns in a certain area

Know the 4 types of fronts

Cold, Warm, Occluded, and Stationary

How the air masses interact due to temperature/density

Cold Front: Cold air moves in fast, forcing the warm air to rise up

Warm Front: Cold air doesn't move to warm air "crawls" over the cold air

Occluded Front: One cold air mass collides with another cold air mass, cutting the warm air from the surface

Stationary Front: Neither air mass overtakes the other so they just stay put

The type of weather/precipitation associated with each front

Cold Front: Cumulonimbus clouds → Thunderstorms

Warm Front: Nimbostratus → prolonged, light, drizzly rain

Occluded Front: Weather varies → Strong storms, light rain, high winds

Stationary Front: Can vary → Clear skies, cloudy, light rain

Know how fronts are symbolized on a weather map

o cold front → Blue spike line

o warm front → Red round line

o stationary front → Blue spike red round alternating opposite sides

o high pressure → Blue Capital H

o low pressure → Red Capital L

Understand weather associated with high pressure (anticyclone) systems and low pressure (depressions) systems

High pressure (anticyclone) → Clear skies

Low pressure (cyclone/depression) → Cloudy, rainy "depressing" weather

Where on Earth and during what seasons are thunderstorms most likely to occur?

Spring to early summer at mid latitudes

What conditions are necessary for thunderstorms to form?

Source of moisture

Lifting Air Mass

Unstable Air Mass

What are the stages of thunderstorm development? updraft/downdraft

Cumulus: Warm air rises and water vapor condenses to form clouds (updrafts)

Mature: Precipitation falls and creates a cool area (downdrafts); Updrafts and downdrafts exist together to create high winds

Dissipation: The surface air has cooled and no more warm air rises; Storm rains itself out

What are the characteristics of a thunderstorm?

Thunder and lightning

What type of cloud is associated with these storms?

Cumulonimbus clouds

What types of precipitation can occur during a thunderstorm?

Rain, sleet, hail, or snow

What is lightning, and what is the highest temperature it can reach?

Lightning: The result of friction in the clouds

Can reach up to 54,000° fahrenheit

Positive and negative ions/charges

Positive and negative charges connect, causing lightning

Types of lightning

Cloud to cloud

Cloud to air

Within cloud

Cloud to ground

What is thunder?

The rapid expansion of air due to the heat of the lightning

Why do thunder and lightning appear not to happen at the same instant?

Light travels faster than sound so you see lightning before you hear thunder

Under what type of conditions do tornadoes form?

Supercell thunderstorms and wind shear

Where on Earth are tornadoes most common?

Mid latitudes (Tornado Alley)

What is the beginning form of a tornado called?

Funnel cloud

How are tornadoes measured (two variables) and on what scale?

Measured by wind speed and amount of damage

Enhanced Fujita Scale

Know the difference between a tornado watch and a tornado warning

Tornado Watch: Conditions are favorable for a tornado

Tornado Warning: Tornado has touched down in your area

What are hurricanes and where do they form?

Hurricanes: A massive rotating storm

- Form over warm waters

What are hurricanes called in different parts of the world?

Pacific- Typhoons

Indian- Cyclones

North Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean- Hurricanes

How are hurricanes affected by the Earth's rotation in each hemisphere?

NH: Spins counterclockwise

SH: Spins clockwise

How does landfall affect hurricanes?

Landfall affects hurricane because once away from their source of warm water, they weaken and become less strong

How do they begin and at what point are they considered to reach hurricane status?

Forms from warm, moist air over a warm body of water → Winds

Once winds reach 74 mph, they are considered a hurricane

How are hurricanes measured?

Measured by the Saffir-Simpson scale → Scale of 1-5, 5 being the highest, ranked on winds and damage

Know the system for naming hurricanes

Are named from a list of alphabetical gender swapping names

Know the characteristics of the eye of the hurricane

Calm center of the storm

Area of high pressure; Clear skies

What is a storm surge?

Storm surge: Most dangerous part; A wall of water that is created by the hurricane winds at sea

Causes serious damage

How is climate defined?

Long term weather patterns in a certain area

What is the relationship between weather vs. climate?

Weather impacts an area's climate through more consistent weather conditions

Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get

What are the factors that determine an area's climate?

Topography

Proximity to water

Global wind patterns

Air masses

Ocean currents

Latitude - most important

Windward

Upwind (wet and cool)

Leeward

Downwind (warm and dry)

Who developed the climate classification system?

Koppen

What are the five main zones? What are their sub-zones?

Tropical

Arid/Dry

Mild/Temperate

Continental

Polar

Tropical (characteristics and subzones)

Characteristics: Year round high temps

Subzones:

Tropical wet

Tropical dry + wet

Arid/Dry (characteristics and subzones)

Characteristics: Veg= water conservation; 30% of land

Subzones:

Semi-arid

Arid

Mild/Temperate (characteristics and subzones)

Characteristics: Mild temps, seasons, diverse veg.

Subzones:

Mediterranean

Humid subtropical

Marine West Coast

Continental (characteristics and subzones)

Characteristics: Tropical meets polar → severe weather; Warm summers and very cold winters

Subzones:

Warm Summer

Humid

Subarctic

Polar (characteristics and subzones)

Characteristics: Monthly avg < 10°c year round

Subzones:

Tundra

Ice cap

Highland

How are the following areas classified in the system?

Baja Peninsula, Egypt, Georgia, Greenland, Hawaii, Italy, Nova Scotia, Sri Lanka, Antarctica

Baja: Arid

Egypt: Arid

Georgia: Temperate

Greenland: Polar

Hawaii: Tropical

Italy: Temperate

Nova Scotia: Continental

Sri Lanka: Tropical

Antarctica: Polar

How are Urban Heat Islands defined?

An area that experiences more heat than surrounding areas

What causes the effect of Urban Heat Islands?

Human activity

What are some ways to alleviate the effects of Urban Heat Islands?

Increasing vegetation and water

Volcanoes - how do they cause cooling and heating?

Produce gases that cause heating and cooling

Changes in greenhouse gas - how do they cause cooling and heating?

Greenhouse gases traps heat from Sun's rays --> keeps Earth warm

Greenhouse Effect

The process when greenhouse gases trap heat, keep Earth warm

Eccentricity - define and know length of cycle

Refers to the shape of Earth's orbit around the Sun

Occurs about each 100,000 years