exam yay

Glial Cells

support cells in the nervous system that nourish and protect neurons

Dendrite

branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons

Axon

long fiber that carries messages away from the neuron's cell body

Myelin Sheath

fatty covering around the axon that speeds up neural impulses

Synapse

the gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to pass messages

Action Potential

electrical impulse that travels down an axon when a neuron fires

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another (e.g., sensory input into neural signals

Frontal Lobe

responsible for decision-making, planning, problem-solving, and motor control

Parietal Lobe

processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness

Temporal Lobe

involved in auditory processing and memory

Occipital Lobe

processes visual information

Hippocampus

involved in forming new memories

Amygdala

controls emotion, especially fear and aggression

Hypothalamus

regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and controls the pituitary gland

Medulla

controls basic life functions like breathing and heartbeat

Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movement and balance

Thalamus

relay station for sensory information (except smell)

Reticular Formation

regulates awareness and arousal

Corpus Callosum

connects the two hemispheres of the brain; allows communication between them

Endocrine System

a system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Serotonin

affects mood, sleep, hunger, and arousal

Acetylcholine (ACh)

involved in muscle movement and memory

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

major inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces neuronal excitability

Endorphins

natural painkillers; released during excercise or stress

Cornea

transparent layer covering the eye; focuses light

Lens

focuses light on the retina

Retina

light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye; contains rods and cones

Rods

photoreceptors for black, white, and dim light vision

Cones

photoreceptors for color and detail

Optic Nerve

carries visual info from the eye to the brain

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

states we have 3 types of cones for red, green, and blue

Vision

the process by which light is converted into neural signals for visual perception

Vestibular Sense

sense of balance and head position (controlled by semicircular canals in the inner ear)

Kinesthetic Sense

awareness of body part position and movement

Olfaction

sense of smell (only sense that doesn't go through the thalamus)

Pathway of a Reflex

sensory neuron -> interneuron (spinal cord) -> motor neuron -> muscle, (skips brain for quick response)

Absolute Threshold

minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

the smallest change in a stimulus intensity that can be detected

Weber's Law

the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity

Circadian Rhythms

24-hour biological cycles (like sleep-wake cycle)

REM Sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; vivid dreams occur; body is paralyzed

Signal Detection Theory

predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background noise

Signal detection theory

how we detect stimuli among background noise, decision making process

opponent-process theory

color vision is managed by three opposing pairs of receptor systems, red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white, which work through inhibitory and excitatory signals

Audition

The formal term for the sense of hearing

blind spot

in the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye, gap

path to sensation

Stimulus, Receptor, Transduction, Brain

Perception

The process of interpreting sensory information. How we make sense of what are senses pick up. 

Bottom-up processing

Starts with raw sensory input.

Top-down processing

Uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret information.

Schemas

Mental frameworks used to categorize and interpret information.

Perceptual set

Tendency to perceive things based on expectations or motivation.

Gestalt principles

We perceive whole patterns, not isolated parts.

Closure

Mental filling in of missing information.

Figure-ground

Ability to distinguish objects from background.

Proximity

Grouping elements that are close together.

Similarity

Grouping elements that look alike.

Continuity

Perceive smooth, continuous patterns.

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Change blindness

Not noticing large changes in a scene.

Inattentional blindness

Not noticing an obvious object when attention is elsewhere.

Binocular cues

Depth perception using both eyes.

Retinal disparity

Each eye sees a slightly different image for depth.

Convergence

Eyes move inward for close objects; signals distance.

Monocular cues

Depth perception using one eye.

Relative size

Smaller objects appear farther away.

Texture gradient

Closer objects appear more detailed.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines converge in the distance.

Interposition

Objects blocking others appear closer.

Perceptual constancy

Perceiving objects as stable despite changes.

Size constancy

Object size is perceived as constant.

Shape constancy

Object shape is perceived as constant.

Brightness constancy

Perceived brightness remains constant.

Motion illusions

Movement is perceived even when none exists (stroboscopic, phi phenomenon).

Phi phenomenon

Illusion of movement between stationary stimuli.

Attributions

how people explain the causes of their behavior and behavior of others

Attribution Theory

the way that people envision the success or failure of their own behavior or the behavior of others

dispositional Attribution

assigning the cause of a person's behavior to their internal characteristics

Situational Attributions

assigning the cause of a person's behavior to external (situation) factors

implicit attitudes

evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self

Asch's Line Study

An experiment showing people often conform to a group's wrong answer about line lengths

Group Polarization

Group discussion strengthens the group's initial opinions, often making opinions more extreme

peripheral route

persuaded by cues (attractiveness, fame, emotions) rather than deep thinking

Central route

persuaded by strong arguments/evidence and careful thinking

Autonomic Nervous System

controls the involuntary functions and influences the activity of internal organs.

Id (freud)

Instincts (devil on shoulder), operates on the pleasure principle, representing primal drives and unconscious desires.

Superego

Morality (angel on shoulder), operates on the morality principle, acting as the conscience to enforce social standards and internalized values.

Ego

Reality, operates on the reality principle, acting as the rational mediator between the id and the outside world

.

Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)

approach to personality, human behavior and personality are shaped by unconscious motives, childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.

Social cognitive theory

approach to personality, personality is shaped by the dynamic interplay of personal factors (cognition, emotion), behavior, and environmental influences (reciprocal determinism)

defense mechanisms (Freud)

unconscious strategies whereby people protect themselves from anxious thoughts or feelings

Denial

Refusing to accept a painful or threatening reality

Projection

Attributing your own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else

Displacement

Redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a safer one

Regression

Returning to earlier, childlike behaviors when under stress

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way that is opposite to your true feelings

Rationalization

Making logical-sounding excuses to justify behavior or outcomes

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities

Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology-worked with freud)

Found Individual Psychology, behavior is driven by a striving for superiority/perfection to overcome innate feelings of inferiority, rather than by sexual drives

Inferiority complex

constant feelings of inadequacy or insecurity in your daily life due to a belief that you are physically or mentally inferior to others