Wisconsin Foundations of Reading Test Study Guide P

Phoneme

The smallest part of spoken language that makes a difference of words. English has exactly 41 of them. Most words have more than one.

Grapheme

The smallest part of written language that represents a phoneme in the spelling of a word.

Phonics

The understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes and graphemes.

ITS VISUAL

ALSO KNOWN AS... Alphabetic principle

Phonemic Awareness

The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds- phonemes- in spoken words. This is purely an auditory skill and does NOT involve a connection to the written form of language.

The MOST complex level of phonological awareness

Phonological Awareness

A broad term that includes phonemic awareness. In addition to phonemes, these activities can involve work with rhymes, words, syllables, onsets, and rimes.

ITS AUDITORY

Syllable

A word part that contains a vowel, or, in spoken language, a vowel sound.

Onset and Rime

Parts of spoken language that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes.

Onset

The initial consonant sound of a syllable

Rime

The part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it.

Phonological Awareness Skills

1. Rhyming

2. Syllables

3. Counting words in a sentence

4. Hearing/manipulating onset and rime

5. Phonemic Awareness

Phoneme Isolation

Children recognize individual sounds in a word.

Example:

Teacher- What is the first sound in van?

Student- The first sound in van is /v/.

Phoneme Identify

Children recognize the same sounds in different words.

Example:

Teacher- What sound is the same in fix, fall, and fun?

Student- The first sound, /f/, is the same

Phoneme Categorization

Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes and then combine the phonemes to form a word. Then they write and read the word.

Example:

Teacher- What word doesn't belong? Bus, Bun, Rug.

Student- Rug does not belong. It doesn't begin with /b/.

Phoneme Blending

Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes, and then combine the phonemes to form a word. Then they write and read the word.

Example:

Teacher- What word is /b/ /i/ /g/?

Student- /b/ /i/ /g/ is big.

Phoneme Segmentation

Children break a word into its separate sounds, saying each sound as they tap out or count it. Then they write and read the word.

Example:

Teacher- How many sounds are in grab?

Student- /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/. Four sounds

Phoneme deletion

Children recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is removed from another word.

Example:

Teacher- What is smile without the /s/?

Student- Smile without the /s/ is mile.

Phoneme addition

Children make new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word.

Example:

Teacher- What word do you have if yo add /s/ to the beginning of park?

Children- Spark

Phoneme Substitution

Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word.

Example:

Teacher- The word is bug. Change /g/ to /n/. What's the new word?

Student- bun

Phonemic Awareness Improves

Children's ability to read words

Reading Comprehension

Spelling

Phoneme Manipulation

When children work with phonemes in words, they are manipulating the phonemes.

Types: Blending, segmenting, deleting, adding, substituting.

Alphabetic Principle

Phonemes that are represented by letters and letters pairs.

Environmental Principle

Print found authentically in our environment

Emergent Literacy

Literacy development begins with one's earliest experiences of authentic literacy in home. These students are typically in early childhood setting or kindergarten.

Book Handling Skills

Illustrates a child's knowledge of how books "work" by holding a book, tracking print from left to right, front and back cover, title page.

Three Reading Cueing Systems

1. Semantics Meaning - Does it make sense?

2. Syntax Structure - Does it sound right?

3. Phonics Visual - Does it match the print?

Meaning/Semantics

The context of sentence, paragraph, passage and/or text.

Background knowledge

Illustrations where available

Structure/Syntax

Grammar

An intuitive sense of the correct order of words in a sentence, subject-verb agreement, consistent use of tense.

Visual/Phonics

Alphabetic principle

Letter-sound correspondence

Phonics generalizations

Structural Analysis Strategies

THE CUEING SYSTEM GIVEN GREATEST PRIORITY AND IMPORTANCE for INSTRUCTION

Consonant

B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P etc.

There is a strong relationship between the letter and the sound we expect it to represent.

Represent the dominant sounds in words.

Consonant irregularities

The hard c is the sound of /k/ in cat.

The soft c is the sound of /s/ in cent and city.

The hard g is the sound of /g/ in game.

The soft g is the sound of /j/ in gem and gentle

Vowels

Generally, considered short.

A: apple

E: elephant

I: igloo

O: octopus

U: umbrella

Or long such as the sounds in the words below:

A: say

E: tree

I: bike

O: boat

U: cute

Harder to discriminate then consonants.

Blends

Consonant pairs or clusters. You hear each sound through to the end. "bl" in blend till the "end"

Examples: bl, sm, scr, gr, sl,

Digraphs

Two consonant letters that together make a new sound.

A digraph makes me lau"gh".

Generalization: When two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking.

Examples: ch, ph, sh, th, wh, tch, gh, ng.

Silent E

When a short vowel ends with an "e" the first vowel usually has the long sound and the final "e" is silent.

R controlled vowels

When a vowel letter is followed by "r", the vowel sound is neither long nor short, it's different.

Example: "ir" in "bird"

Diphthongs

A blend of vowel sounds, where each sound is still heard. "oi" in boil.

Synthetic Phonics

A part-to-whole phonic approach to reading instruction in which the student learn the sounds represented by letter and letters combinations, blends these sounds to pronounce words, and finally identifies which phonics generalizations apply.

Involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset.

BOTTOM UP

Analytic Phonics

A whole-to-part approach to word study in which the student is first taught a number of sight words and then relevant phonics generalizations, which are subsequently applied to other words; deductive phonics.

ALSO KNOWN AS... the Whole Word approach

TOP DOWN

Research-Based Instruction for Emergent Readers

Learn concepts about print

Build oral language

Build phonological awareness

Develop knowledge of letter names

May begin to develop knowledge of alphabetic principle

Research-Based Instruction for Early Readers

Instruction begins with words containing short vowels sounds. These words begin with single consonant letters and then include consonant blends and digraphs.

CVC pattern

cat

sip

bug

map

CVCC pattern

cast

tent

lift

fist

CCVC pattern

trip

twig

ship

chat

CCVCC pattern

stick

truck

twist

blend

CVCe

same

late

bike

Sight words

These appear frequently in their reading and writing and need to be memorized

Examples: because, friend, there, when

Transitional Readers

2nd grade and up

Students at this level begin to see lots of words that are not necessarily in their oral vocabulary.

Fluency

Reading smoothly, accurately, and efficiently. It includes accuracy, appropriate rate, expression, phrasing, and intonation.

How to build oral reading fluency

Lots of practice reading independent level texts.

Independent Level

95-100% accuracy

This is the level at which student should practice reading independently.

Instructional Level

90-94% accuracy

This is the student's zone of proximal development where small group instruction or individual instruction is appropriate.

Frustration Level

Below 90% accuracy

This is the level at which the student's reading development may be undermined.

Reading at frustration level should be minimum.

Strategies that support oral reading fluency

Repeated readings of familiar texts

Echo reading

Choral reading

Reader's theater

Fluency directly affects

comprehension

Morpheme

Any unit in a word is a morpheme

Base word

A simple word from which you can build a family of words around it.

Root word

The origin of a word.

Example: "locus" means place in Latin

Prefix

Morpheme added to the beginning of the word

Suffix

Morpheme added to the end of the word

Affix

Prefixes, suffixes, and inflectional ending.

Closed Syllables

When a short word with one vowel letter ends in a consonant, the vowel sound is usually short.

Examples: VC, CVC, CVCC, CCVC

Open Syllables

When a word or a syllable has only one vowel and its comes at the end of the word or syllable, it usually creates the long vowel sounds.

Example: CV, CV-CVC.

Inflectional Endings

Affixes added to the end of words to indicate number (ox/oxen, bush/bushes) or tense (playing, played, plays).

Syllabication

sum-mer

pre-vent

um-brel-la

Compound Words

hotdog

shoelace

Contractions

have not- haven't

can not - can't

Schwa

An unstressed vowel sound, such as the first sound in "around" and the last vowel sound in "custom".

Oral Vocabulary

The vocabulary one can use appropriately in speech and can understand when heard aloud

Written Vocabulary

The words one can understand when seen in written form.

Semantic Mapping

A strategy that visually displays the relationship among words and helps to categorize them.

Why is vocabulary so important to reading development?

It improves students' comprehension

Students' ability to infer meaning of text

the ability to read complex tests

Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary Effectively

Provide explicit instruction in selected words that will likely be seen in other contexts.

Provide explicit instruction in strategies to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words.

Provide explicit instruction of technical vocabulary important to understanding content in social studies and science.

Provide opportunities for children to hear books read aloud.

Provide opportunities for children to read independently.

Let children talk about what they read.

Let children make connections between oral and written vocabulary.

When answering multiple choice questions related to vocabulary, consider the purpose...

Is it to prepare students for content area (science, history) instruction? Is so, teach the concept words that are unfamiliar and necessary to understand the topic.

If the question is asking about preparing students to understand literary texts, consider the words that would be helpful to know in this test, but also in others. These are Tier 2 words.

Tier 3

Domain-specific

Science/history

Example: volcano, atmosphere

Tier 2

More sophisticated synonyms for words many children will know.

Examples: generous, bawl, whine, infant

Tier 1

Require no instruction; concepts already familiar, words familiar.

Example: Kind, cry, baby

Metacognitive Strategies

These are strategies that help the reader become more aware of their own reading process, their thoughts as they read, and help the reader to have more control over their reading.

Graphic Organizers

Visual maps or diagrams that help the reader organize the information they read. A story map is one type of graphic organizer. It allows the reader to organize the elements of a story.

Literal Comprehension

Information that is stated explicitly in the text such as who, what, when, where, and why.

Inferential Comprehension

Information that is implied within the text, but not directly or explicitly stated.

Evaluative Comprehension

The reader needs to use information from the text and their own world experiences to form a judgement.

Before Reading Activities

Activate and build upon prior knowledge

Predict what text is about based on text features, visuals, and text type.

Setting a purpose for reading.

Example: Anticipating Guide

During Reading Activities

Connect new texts with prior knowledge and experiences

Check predictions for accuracy

Form sensory image

Making inferences

Determining key vocabulary

Interpreting the traits of main characters

Self-monitoring own difficulty in decoding and comprehending texts.

Interpreting diagrams, maps, and charts.

Posing how, why, and what questions to understand.

Recognizing cause and effect relationships and drawing conclusions.

Noticing when comprehension problems arise.

After Reading Activities

Discussing accuracy of predictions

Summarizing the key ideas

Connecting and comparing information from texts to experience and knowledge

Explaining and describing new ideas and information in own words.

Retelling story in own words including setting, characters, and sequence of important events.

Discussing and comparing authors and illustrators.

Reflecting on the strategies that helped the most and lest and why.

Example: Semantic Map

Questions before reading should help the reader

Make connections

Set a purpose

Make predictions

Questions during reading should help the reader

Clarify and review

Confirm or create new predictions

Critically evaluate the story and make personal connections

Make connections with other experiences or books

Monitor the child's reading for meaning and accuracy.

Questions after reading will help

Reinforce the concept

Model ways of thinking

Encourage critical thinking

Build awareness

Informational/Expository Texts

These are factual materials for science, social studies, and other content areas, as well as "concept books" for the very young dealing with the alphabet or relationships of time, space, amount.

Cloze Procedure

A versatile, informal instrument for use in determining a student's reading level, use of context while reading, and knowledge of vocabulary. Sometimes used as an alternative to the Informal Reading Inventory for determining reading levels, students read a selection in which random words are deleted a replaced with black spaces. Students are directed to read the selection and fill in the blanks.

Ongoing Reading Assessments

Assessment made on a regular basis through a variety of means, both informal and formal. The purpose is to document progress the student makes in reading. while also identifying areas that need instruction.

Criterion-Referenced Tests

Tests based on objectives that contain specific conditions, outcomes, and criteria that are expected for satisfactory completion of the task.

Norm-referenced tests

A norm referenced test provides information on how well a student performs in comparison to an external reference group or norm group.

Miscue Analysis

Analysis of any responses made during oral reading that deviate from those anticipated.

Informal Reading Inventories

A compilation of graded reading selections with comprehension questions accompanying each selection. This inventory is individually administered to determine the students' strengths and weaknesses in word recognition and comprehension.

Running Records

Allows the teacher to determine...

text difficulty

student's placement in groups or materials

the directional movement of the child in reading connected text.

the child's ability to coordinate oral language with the visual patterns in text

the child's speed of responding

The type of cues the child uses to process

The child's self-correction behavior

Rubrics

A set of scoring guidelines for evaluating student work

Portfolio Assessment

The systematic collection of student work for use in evaluating changes in student performance in reading and language.

Omissions

High numbers show the child is not using any strategies to decode the print.

High number of initials letter attempts and substitutions

can reflect that the child has emerging decoding skills; at least the child is attempting to decode - instruction would then focus on helping child become more skilled in decoding

Errors with sight words

show that the words need to be memorized