European Economic History

Paris Peace Conference (1919)

A meeting of the WWI "victors" dominated by the Council of Four (UK, USA, France, Italy). Germany and Bolshevik Russia were excluded. It aimed to permanently end warfare but was seen as a cause of instability.

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

A peace proposal outlined in a January 1918 speech. Its vision included "peace without victory", transparency, free trade, national self-determination, and a League of Nations.

"Peace Without Victory"

Woodrow Wilson's ideal for the post-WWI settlement, which favored stability and the repair of diplomatic relations rather than the harsh punishment of the central powers. This idea was largely rejected by the European allies.

National Self-Determination

Wilson's principle that groups with a common language and unity have the right to territorial independence. This principle guided the redrawing of European boundaries after WWI, leading to the creation of new states.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The treaty that officially ended WWI. It imposed harsh punishment on Germany, contrary to Wilson's vision.

"Guilt Clause" (Article 231)

A clause in the Treaty of Versailles where Germany was forced to accept full responsibility for causing the war. This became a source of deep resentment in Germany.

German Territorial Losses

As part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France, had its Rhineland demilitarised, and lost all its colonies, which were turned into mandates under the League of Nations.

Dissolution of Empires

The Treaty of Versailles led to the dissolution of the Austrian-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, creating new countries like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia and reshaping the map of Europe and the Middle East.

League of Nations (1920)

An international political organisation created to prevent war through multilateralism and conflict resolution. It failed because it lacked its own army, and major powers like the USA refused to join.

The Great Depression (1930s)

A worldwide economic recession that originated in the USA with the 1929 crash of Wall Street. It created a vicious cycle of over-production, unemployment, and weakened purchasing power.

Impact of the Depression on Germany

Germany was affected the most in Europe due to its poor post-war economic recovery and its dependence on US loans, which were called in after the crash.

The "Communist Threat"

The 1917 Russian Revolution created a "spectre of fear for the right" in Europe. This fear of communism's spread provided opportunities for ultra-right, nationalist groupings like fascism to rise.

Comintern (1919)

The Communist International, created by Lenin with the main focus of exporting revolution to other European countries and colonies.

Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" (1922)

After Fascists took control of the Po valley, Mussolini staged this event. Fearing a civil war, King Victor Emmanuel III transferred power to him, establishing a fascist regime in Italy.

Weimar Republic (1918-1933)

The German republic after WWI. It was a weak parliamentary model with an extreme form of proportional representation, which led to political chaos and its eventual collapse.

Hitler's Democratic Rise to Power

The NSDAP (Nazi party) exploited the economic crisis and political chaos to gain a majority in the Reichstag by 1933, allowing Hitler to become Führer.

"Stab-in-the-back" Myth

The right-wing German belief that their army was never defeated but was betrayed by the republicans (the "November criminals") who signed the armistice. The Nazis used this myth extensively in their propaganda.

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

A conflict that began when right-wing forces under General Franco launched a military insurrection against the elected Republican government. It became the first international battlefield of WWII.

International Involvement in Spain

Hitler and Mussolini supported Franco's fascists (e.g., with an airlift from Morocco). The Soviet Union supported the Republicans with arms and by organizing international brigades. France and Britain adopted a policy of non-intervention.

Appeasement Politics

A diplomatic policy of making territorial concessions to an aggressive power (like Nazi Germany) in order to avoid conflict.

The Anschluss (March 1938)

The annexation of Austria by Germany, which was facilitated by the Berlin-Rome axes and a military occupation.

Munich Conference (September 1938)

A meeting where Britain and France, as part of their appeasement policy, allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Hitler violated this agreement by annexing the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.

Reasons for Appeasement

1) Social: Public disillusionment with WWI and a strong pacifist movement. 2) Economic: The Great Depression. 3) Military: The Allies lagged behind Germany in military preparedness. 4) Ideological: A fear of communism and a tacit acceptance of Germany as a buffer against the Soviet Union.

Liberal Internationalism (post-WWII)

The idea that economic interdependence (open markets, free trade) and international organizations (like the UN) would be the road towards a lasting peace.

Glorious Revolution (UK)

The abdication of a Catholic king and his replacement by a Protestant one, creating a breach with the tradition of the 'divine right to rule of Kings' and requiring the monarch to account for his behavior to the people.

The American Revolution

Resulted in American independence from Great Britain, establishing the right of representation and the right to revolt against an 'unjust' rule, challenging authority coming from above.

Meeting of the Estates-General (1789)

The first meeting since 1614 of the king's advisory body, called to solve the financial crisis but quickly turned into a debate on sovereignty.

Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)

An oath taken by the Third Estate, declaring themselves the National Assembly and a legitimate authority equal to the king, vowing not to separate until a constitution was established.

Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

An event where mobs in Paris stormed the Bastille fortress, a symbol of royal authority, marking the rise of republican, anti-royal sentiment.

Abolition of Feudalism (August 4, 1789)

The National Assembly decreed the end of servitude and the privileges of the nobility.

Women's March on Versailles (October 5, 1789)

Marketplace riots over bread prices evolved into a march on the palace, forcing the King to return to Paris and accept the August decrees.

The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

The most radical phase of the revolution, led by Maximilien Robespierre, culminating in a state of siege with over 16,594 death sentences carried out against suspected counter-revolutionaries.

Coup de Brumaire (1799)

The coup that ended the ineffective and corrupt Directory government, leading to a strengthening of the executive with a government of three consuls, including Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleonic Wars (1802-1814)

A series of wars waged by Napoleon's French Empire against coalitions of allied forces, resulting in an estimated 7 million deaths across Europe.

Louis XVI

The king of France who inherited a kingdom facing financial bankruptcy and political struggle, whose calling of the Estates-General instigated the revolution and was later tried for treason and executed.

Abbé Sieyès

Author of the highly influential 1789 pamphlet 'What is the Third Estate?', arguing that the Third Estate was 'The People' and the true nation, advocating for a majority decision rule.

Maximilien Robespierre

A leader of the radical Montagnard faction who became the dominant figure during the Reign of Terror.

Terror

A necessary tool to save the revolution, justified by some but ultimately denounced as tyrannical.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A military general who rose to power in the Coup de Brumaire (1799) and ruled France as Consul and then as Emperor, waging the Napoleonic Wars until his defeat in 1815.

Girondins

A moderate political group with ties to the provinces during the French Revolution.

Montagnards

A radical political group with close ties to the Parisian popular movement, the 'Les Sans-Culottes'.

Two Treatises of Government

A work by John Locke arguing that legitimate government must be founded on the consent of the governed.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The foundational document of the revolution issued by the National Assembly, establishing equality before the law and freedom from arbitrary imprisonment.

Civil Constitution for the Clergy

A law passed during the revolution that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French state.

Popular Sovereignty

The core political idea of the revolution stating that government authority is created and sustained by the consent of its people.

Ancien Régime

The pre-revolutionary political and social system in France characterized by an absolute monarch and a rigid social hierarchy.

Droit de Remontrance

The power of provincial courts to appeal and criticize royal edicts, serving as a source of resistance to the king's absolute power.

Secularisation

The process of separating Church and government, limiting the Church's worldly powers.

Nationalism

The idea that people identify with a nation-state as a social group with common identities, rather than as subjects of a king.

La Marseilleise

The new anthem symbolizing nationalism during the French Revolution.

Tricolor cockade

A symbol of nationalism representing the change in the king's title to 'KING OF THE FRENCH'.

Plebiscitary dictatorship

A form of government established by Napoleon where the ruler has significant power supported by popular votes.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire and various coalitions across Europe.

Coup de Brumaire

The coup d'état that brought Napoleon to power in France in 1799.

Fiscal equality

The principle that taxes should be based on the ability to pay, established in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Oath of loyalty

An oath required from priests by the Civil Constitution for the Clergy, creating conflict with the Pope.

Three Estates

The rigid social hierarchy in the Ancien Régime, consisting of the clergy, nobility, and commoners.

Divine Right of Kings

The old idea that monarchs derive their authority directly from God, replaced by the concept of popular sovereignty.

Late Middle Ages

Period of crisis and transition in Europe marked by plague, war, famine, and decline of feudalism.

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

Long conflict between England and France that strengthened national identity and weakened feudal nobles.

Fall of Byzantine Empire (1453)

Ottoman capture of Constantinople that ended the Byzantine Empire and disrupted eastern trade routes.

Renaissance

Cultural rebirth beginning in Italy focused on classical learning, humanism, art, and secular interests.

New Monarchs

Strong rulers in France, Spain, and England who centralized power and reduced noble influence.

Height of Habsburg Power

Peak of Habsburg dynasty influence under Charles V, ruling Spain, Austria, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire.

Commercial Revolution

Growth of banking, trade, capitalism, and overseas markets that expanded Europe's economy.

Old Imperialism

16th-17th century conquest of the Americas focused on gold, silver, and colonies.

Reformation (1517)

Religious movement started by Martin Luther criticizing Church corruption and creating Protestant churches.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

Catholic response that reformed abuses, reaffirmed doctrine, and fought Protestantism.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Church council that clarified Catholic teachings and improved discipline.

Spanish Armada (1588)

Failed Spanish attempt to invade Protestant England.

French Civil Wars (1562-1594)

Religious conflict between Catholics and Huguenots in France.

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

Major war in Central Europe over religion and power that devastated Germany.

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Ended Thirty Years' War and recognized state sovereignty.

Scientific Revolution

16th-17th century movement using observation and reason to understand nature.

Agricultural Revolution

Improved farming methods that increased food production and population growth.

Golden Age of Spain

Period of Spanish political power and cultural achievement in the 1500s-1600s.

Golden Age of the Netherlands

17th-century Dutch dominance in trade, finance, and art.

Age of Absolutism (1650-1750)

Era when monarchs claimed complete authority over their states.

Louis XIV

French absolute monarch known as the Sun King who centralized power at Versailles.

Peter the Great

Russian ruler who modernized Russia and expanded western influence.

Frederick William (Great Elector)

Prussian ruler who built a strong military state.

Frederick William I

Prussian king who expanded bureaucracy and military discipline.

Baroque Art

Grand, emotional art style often used to glorify church and monarchy.

Constitutionalism in England

Government limited by laws and parliament rather than absolute monarchy.

English Civil War (1642-1649)

Conflict between Charles I and Parliament ending in the king's execution.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

Peaceful overthrow of James II establishing parliamentary supremacy.

Act of Union (1707)

Joined England and Scotland into Great Britain.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and natural rights.

Population Explosion (c. 1750)

Rapid growth due to better food supply and lower death rates.

Enlightened Despotism

Absolute rulers who adopted some Enlightenment reforms.

Frederick the Great

Prussian ruler who promoted efficiency and military strength.

Catherine the Great

Russian ruler who expanded territory and embraced some Enlightenment ideas.

Joseph II

Austrian ruler who attempted broad reforms such as religious toleration.

Absolutism in Eastern Europe

Rise of powerful monarchies in Prussia, Russia, and Austria while serfdom remained strong.

Second Hundred Years' War

Series of wars between Britain and France for global dominance.

War of League of Augsburg

Conflict resisting French expansion under Louis XIV.

War of Spanish Succession

War over Spanish throne ending with balance of power preserved.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

Ended War of Spanish Succession and increased British power.

War of Austrian Succession

Conflict over Maria Theresa's inheritance of Habsburg lands.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Ended War of Austrian Succession with little territorial change.