CRIM 251 FINAL

What are the three main classifications of police specialty units?

Alternative patrol, problem-oriented, and method-oriented.

What defines a problem-oriented specialty unit?

Units that focus on specific types of individuals or issues beyond the capacity of general duty, such as gangs, chronic offenders, financial crime, or sex offences.

What distinguishes a method-oriented specialty unit?

The use of specialized equipment, tools, and tactics that exceed those available to general duty officers (e.g., SWAT, K9, Bomb squad).

What is the primary historical reason for the adoption of SWAT in Canada?

Concerns regarding Olympic terrorism in the 1970s.

What are the three main utilities of SWAT teams?

Crisis response (heightened danger), planned tactical operations (high-risk warrants), and containment/de-escalation.

What is the definition of police militarization according to Kraska (2007)?

A process where civilian police increasingly draw from and pattern themselves around the tenets of militarism and the military model.

What are the four characteristics of police militarization?

Culture (values and language), Material (weapons and equipment), Organizational concerns, and Operational.

What did Roziere and Walby find regarding the frequency of SWAT deployments between 2007 and 2017?

They found a substantial upward trend, with average annual deployments per agency rising from approximately 60 in the late 1990s to 1000 by 2017.

According to Roziere and Walby, are SWAT teams primarily used for emergency situations?

No, the findings suggest they are increasingly deployed for routine patrol policing and non-emergency situations.

What are the four components of institutionalism that explain the expansion of SWAT teams?

Power, Attraction, Mimesis, and Competition.

How does 'Mimesis' contribute to the growth of SWAT units?

Agencies copy one another's structures and practices, leading to a cycle where increased SWAT usage becomes self-justified.

What is 'Tactical Capital' in the context of SWAT units?

The prestige and credentials provided by the broader SWAT field (associations, trainers, networks) that incentivize units to expand.

What is the main critique by Lair et al. (2024) regarding the research of Roziere and Walby?

They argue that looking only at call type is misleading because it obscures the underlying risk and context of the incidents.

What is a significant challenge when using FOI data to study SWAT deployments?

Data is often inconsistent because agencies define SWAT differently and team composition varies significantly.

What is the primary purpose of SWAT containment and de-escalation?

To establish perimeters, stabilize scenes, and create time and space for communication and resolution in high-risk scenarios.

What is the 'Competition' factor in institutionalism regarding police agencies?

Agencies compete for legitimacy, prestige, and organizational standing, often by expanding their specialized units.

What are some examples of the 'Material' characteristic of militarization?

The use of ballistic helmets, tactical goggles, gas masks, and carbines.

What is the 'Power' factor in institutionalism?

External agents, such as federal or provincial governments, influence organizational change within police agencies.

What is the 'Attraction' factor in institutionalism?

The perception that SWAT is a highly prestigious and appealing position, which drives organizational support for the unit.

How do SWAT units support high-risk arrests?

By executing warrants where there is a perceived elevated threat, such as the presence of weapons.

What is the 'stealth institutionalization' of SWAT?

The process by which SWAT units are increasingly deployed to normal, routine calls, effectively normalizing their presence in everyday policing.

What is the relationship between crime rates and SWAT deployment according to the authors?

The authors argue that SWAT deployment has increased despite lower crime rates, contradicting the police media explanation that it is a response to rising crime.

What is the 'knock and announce' vs 'dynamic entry' issue in legal restraints?

Legal precedents in Canada often leave the decision of entry tactics to police agencies, giving them the discretion to deploy SWAT as they see fit.

Why is it important to consider team composition when analyzing SWAT data?

Because the number of officers involved in a 'SWAT response' varies significantly between agencies, making direct comparisons difficult.

What is the core principle of policing that Lair et al. (2024) suggest is being deviated from due to SWAT expansion?

Peel's principles of policing.

Why is the term 'deployment' in SWAT statistics potentially misleading?

It can refer to anything from a single officer to a full tactical team, potentially exaggerating how often full teams are used.

What are some examples of what a 'SWAT deployment' might actually involve besides a full team?

Tactical officers helping patrol, officers not in full gear, surveillance, standing by, or responding in normal patrol-style roles.

How did the Hamilton Police Service data illustrate the variation in SWAT response size?

The number of tactical officers responding ranged from 2 to 22, with an average of 7.

What was the specific definition of a 'unit' used by the Windsor Police Service?

A unit was defined as a pair of SWAT officers.

Which police service had the narrowest definition of SWAT deployment?

The Regina Police Service, which only reported full-team activations with an Incident Commander present.

What is the primary implication of using FOI data alone to analyze SWAT usage?

It is misleading because it fails to account for the actual team composition and the nature of the tasks performed.

What are the two key perspectives to mention regarding SWAT expansion on an exam?

Roziere (concerning expansion) and Lair (context matters).

What are the three primary utilities of police dogs mentioned in the text?

Crime control (olfactory, tracking, apprehension), public relations, and general support.

What is the 'perceptual paradox' regarding working dogs?

There is strong public support for health/service dogs, but mixed perceptions regarding police dogs.

According to Sandrin et al. (2024), which factors positively influence public support for police dogs?

Olfactory capabilities, apprehension, crowd control, and public relations.

What is the 'important contradiction' found in the study of public perception of police dogs?

Qualitatively, people do not want dogs in high-risk situations, but quantitatively, support for apprehension increases.

What is the historical reason women were excluded from policing?

They were perceived as physically and temperamentally unsuited for the rigors of police work due to gender socialization.

What is Gilligan's 'Morality of Justice'?

A framework defined by rules, rights, and equality of treatment in the enforcement of rules.

What is Gilligan's 'Morality of Care'?

A framework viewing society as an interconnected web of relationships, focusing on empathy, compassion, and nurturing.

How did the 'Morality of Justice' influence the historical view of women in policing?

Policing focused on impartial enforcement, which was viewed as a masculine trait, leading to the perception that women were unsuitable.

How did women first enter policing in the U.S.?

Informally, by assisting husbands who were sheriffs, or in rare cases, serving as U.S. Marshals.

What movement in the late 1800s helped facilitate the formal integration of women into policing?

The women's suffrage movement.

What was the 'Women's Protective Division' in the Vancouver Police Department?

A division created in 1912 to handle female and juvenile cases and patrol pool and dance halls.

What were the institutional limitations placed on the first female officers in the VPD?

Limited scope of duties, unequal pay, no uniforms, no training, and no firearms.

In what year were the first female officers hired in Canada (VPD)?

1912.

In what year were female officers in the VPD issued police uniforms?

1947.

In what year did female officers in the VPD receive in-service training?

1952.

In what year was pay equality achieved for female officers in the VPD?

1956.

Why is it important to consider team composition when evaluating SWAT overuse?

Because counting all deployments as 'full team' deployments exaggerates the frequency of heavily armed tactical responses.

What does the 'Morality of Care' emphasize in social contexts?

Actively attempting to nurture and protect others within specific relationships.

What were the primary limitations faced by the first female officers in the VPD?

They had limited scope, unequal pay, no uniforms, no training, no firearms, and had to carry equipment in purses.

In what year were the first female officers hired by the VPD?

1912

When did female officers in the VPD finally achieve equality in pay?

1956

What was the difference between a 'policewoman' and a 'police constable' in early VPD history?

A 'policewoman' was a distinct, marginalized classification excluded from promotions, while a 'police constable' was the standard rank.

What major change occurred for female officers in the VPD in 1973?

Their duties were expanded to the same patrol as males, and they were authorized to carry firearms.

What is the difference between formal and substantive equality in the context of policing?

Formal equality means policies are applied uniformly, while substantive equality refers to achieving genuine equal opportunities.

What are the two main theories explaining why male and female police officers often show similar personality traits?

Self-selection (people with similar traits choose the career) and cultural integration (the police subculture shapes officers to be similar).

How does 'self-selection' explain the similarities between male and female officers?

It suggests that individuals who pursue policing may already share similar personality traits regardless of their gender.

How does 'cultural integration' explain the similarities between male and female officers?

It suggests that because the police subculture is hegemonically masculine, female officers adapt to that culture to succeed.

What is the key difference between 'POLICEwomen' and 'POLICEWOMEN'?

'POLICEwomen' emphasizes the woman as a specialized, different role (e.g., social work), while 'POLICEWOMEN' emphasizes the officer as an equal, full-duty police professional.

What are the negative consequences of the 'POLICEwomen' approach?

It reinforces gender stereotypes, limits career opportunities, and keeps women on the margins of 'real' policing.

According to Shjarback and Todak (2019), what percentage of U.S. departments had female chief executives?

Only 2.7%.

What department-level factors are associated with higher representation of women in management and supervision?

Larger agency size, the presence of community policing, and being a sheriff's office.

Why does professionalization help increase the representation of women in policing?

It replaces informal systems (like the 'old boys club') with formal standards, training, and objective processes.

What are the three components of community policing?

Community partnerships, problem solving, and organizational transformation.

How does community policing impact leadership pathways for women?

It shifts organizational values, which helps open up leadership pathways for women.

What are the three main benefits of a career in policing mentioned in the text?

Respectable pay, strong pension/benefits, and a 'career within careers' structure.

What happened to the 'Women's Division' in the VPD after Insp. Hewitt passed away in 1969?

The position was not replaced, marking a setback for women in the department.

When was the term 'policewoman' replaced with 'police constable' in the VPD?

1975

What is the approximate percentage of female police officers in Canada?

23%

What does research generally show regarding the effectiveness of female officers compared to males?

There are limited gender differences in overall effectiveness.

What gendered nuances in work output are often observed between male and female officers?

Female officers are more likely to use communication, while male officers are more likely to be authoritarian or physical and receive more citizen complaints.

What is the primary goal of the 'POLICEWOMEN' model?

Integration, equality, and breaking down gender barriers.

What are the two primary trends currently affecting police organizations?

Decreasing applicant volume and increasing voluntary resignations.

What are four key factors influencing police staffing today?

Perceptions of police, media narratives, mental health concerns, and evolving work opportunities.

What was the status of Canadian police staffing in 2023?

There were 71,500 officers, representing the lowest rate of police strength (178 per 100,000 population) since 1970.

What are three negative consequences of declining police staffing levels on public safety?

Lower call response times, higher crime rates, and a decline in public perceptions of police.

How does low police staffing impact officer morale and conduct?

It leads to higher forced overtime, increased burnout, and higher rates of officer misconduct.

List at least five components of the standard police recruitment process.

Entrance exam, integrity questionnaire, physical fitness test, interviews, psychological assessment, polygraph, background investigation, and medical examination.

What were the top three career choices for criminology students in Sandrin's Study 1?

Lawyer, forensics, and national intelligence.

What gendered difference was observed regarding interest in policing careers?

Females were significantly less interested in policing and career opportunities compared to male participants.

How do intrinsic and extrinsic motivations correlate with interest in a policing career?

As both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations increase, interest in a policing career also increases.

What is the relationship between procedural justice perceptions and police career interest?

As perceptions of procedural justice increase, interest in a policing career increases.

How does perceived media accuracy impact interest in policing?

As perceived media accuracy increases, interest in a policing career decreases.

What is the finding regarding past behavior and interest in policing?

As concerns about past behavior increase, interest in a policing career actually increases.

Why might applicants with concerning behavior histories be more interested in policing?

They may be more familiar with the background investigation process and more attuned to their own past behaviors.

What is the reality regarding automatic disqualifiers in police hiring?

There are very few automatic disqualifiers; departments prioritize honesty and evidence of personal growth since past incidents.

How do physical fitness concerns affect interest in policing?

As perceived fitness concerns increase, interest in a policing career decreases.

Why are physical fitness tests sometimes considered problematic for recruitment?

They may be artificial tests that do not accurately reflect the day-to-day duties of general police work, potentially weeding out suitable candidates.

What is the primary difference in how municipal police and the RCMP administer fitness tests?

Municipal agencies use the POPAT early in the recruitment process, while the RCMP administers the PFA at Depot after an individual is appointed as a cadet.

How does the perception of on-the-job danger affect interest in policing?

As perceived on-the-job concerns increase, interest in a policing career decreases, despite the fact that policing is not statistically among the most dangerous professions in Canada.

What are the two main considerations for an individual before applying to a police agency?

Whether they meet the basic qualifications and which specific agency they should apply to.

List three basic qualifications required for police applicants.

Adult status, citizenship or permanent residency, and no convictions or pending charges.

List three preferred qualifications for police applicants.

A university degree, second language proficiency, and volunteer experience.

Why is 'personal fit' critical in the police recruitment process?

Different departments have unique values, morals, and identities; recruiters look for candidates who align with their specific organizational culture.

Does meeting the minimum eligibility requirements guarantee a job offer?

No, because candidates must also be considered 'desirable' and a good 'personal fit' by the specific agency.

What is the main takeaway regarding the malleability of physical fitness in recruitment?

While baseline fitness is necessary, physical fitness is malleable, and the extent to which it should act as a barrier to entry is debated.

What is the primary difference in training location between RCMP and municipal police in BC?

RCMP cadets are trained out of province, while municipal police are trained locally.

How do RCMP and municipal police postings typically differ?

RCMP officers can be sent anywhere, whereas municipal police postings are generally more stable.

Historically, what has been a key benefit associated with the RCMP compared to municipal police?

The RCMP has historically emphasized benefits and pensions, while municipal police have historically offered better pay.