research weeks 7-8

what is sampling

Sampling means selecting a group of people from a

population to participate in a study.

• Participants are chosen because they can provide

information relevant to the research question.

• In qualitative research, sampling focuses on meaning

and depth, not statistical generalization.

what are the two Types of Sampling:

non probability (non randoming) sample and probability (random sampling)

what is non probability (non randoming) sample

Not
everyone has an equal chance of selection.

what is probability sampling

Everyone has an

equal chance of being selected

what are the Common Qualitative Sampling Methods

Snowball Sampling

• Participants recruit others they know.

• Useful for hard-to-reach populations (e.g., rare diseases, hidden groups).

Convenience Sampling

• Participants are easily accessible.

• Quick but may introduce bias.

Purposive Sampling

• Participants are selected because they have direct experience with the topic.

• Provides rich, detailed information.

Quota Sampling

• Researchers select participants based on predefined categories (e.g., age,

gender, discipline).

• Requires prior knowledge of the population.

Sampling method depends on the research purpose and study questions

what is Snowball Sampling

• Participants recruit others they know.

• Useful for hard-to-reach populations (e.g., rare diseases, hidden groups).

what is Convenience Sampling

Convenience Sampling

• Participants are easily accessible.

• Quick but may introduce bias.

what is Purposive Sampling

• Participants are selected because they have direct experience with the topic.

• Provides rich, detailed information.

what is Quota Sampling

Researchers select participants based on predefined categories (e.g., age,

gender, discipline).

• Requires prior knowledge of the population.

what are the three main types of Data Collection in Qualitative

Three Main Types of Qualitative Data Sources:

• Interviews

• Observation (including participant observation)

• Documents (e.g., reports, records, written materials)

• Interviews are the most commonly used method in qualitative research.

• Talk-based professions such as teaching, nursing, and social work often

prefer interviews because dialogue is familiar and comfortable in everyday

life (Atkinson & Silverman, 1997).

• Each method provides different and complementary insights.

• Not all methods are suitable for every study

what is Observation in Qualitative Studies

Observation helps researchers understand real-life behavior and

environments by being present in the setting.

• Visual details, social interactions, and natural behaviors provide valuable

data beyond interviews alone.

• Some people may forget details or hide information in interviews, so

observation adds depth.

Types of Observation:

• Participant observation → Researcher immerses and interacts in the

setting (more in-depth, time-consuming).

• Non-participant observation → Researcher observes with little interaction

(less intensive, more focused on recording)

what are the two types of observation

participant observation and non participative observation

what is participant obervation

Researcher immerses and interacts in the
setting (more in-depth, time-consuming).

what is non participant observation

Researcher observes with little interaction
(less intensive, more focused on recording).

Observation in Qualitative Studies (cont’d)

Levels of Participation (Continuum):

• High participation → Deep immersion but may cause researcher fatigue.

• Low participation → Less interaction but may miss important insights.

• Mid-level participation → Most common; includes attending events or

shadowing participants.

Go-Along / Shadowing Interviews:

• Combine observation and interviewing at the same time.

• Provide insight into daily activities and social environments.

Challenges to Consider:

• Limited privacy in public spaces.

• Managing distractions and unexpected situations.

• Planning is important (location, timing, and recording notes).

Source: Padgett,

2017

what are the different level sof participation

High participation → Deep immersion but may cause researcher fatigue.

• Low participation → Less interaction but may miss important insights.

• Mid-level participation → Most common; includes attending events or

shadowing participants.

“Doing” Observation:

Learning Through Experience

Observation in qualitative research is more disciplined and nonjudgmental

than everyday noticing.

• Start broad, then focus: Begin by noticing everything, then pay attention to

key themes as they emerge.

• Use all senses: Sounds, smells, and sights provide important context and

meaning.

• Key informants: Seek knowledgeable individuals who can guide understanding

of the setting.

Example – Homeless shelters:

• Photos don’t capture reality; direct observation reveals noise, smells, theft,

drug use, and intimidation.

• Sensory experiences provide deeper understanding of daily life and

challenges.

Field Notes in Qualitative Observation

Field notes are essential records of what researchers observe during fieldwork.

• Record notes quickly (preferably during or soon after observation) because memory fades

within 24 hours.

• Be aware of bias: Avoid adding personal assumptions or using labels without evidence.

what observation details should one focus one?

Physical space and environment

• People and their behaviors

• Interactions and relationships

• Emotions and atmosphere

how do busy ppl take field notes ?

In busy public spaces → Take brief notes or use voice recording discreetly.

In private or sensitive settings → Use mental notes and write detailed notes later.

Drawing maps or floor plans can help show spatial context.

Good field notes are detailed, objective, and recorded as soon as possible to support accurate

qualitative research analysis.

Uses of Video and Photography in

Qualitative Research

Video and photography are useful tools for observation and data collection in qualitative

research.

Early ethnographic work used film and video to document cultures and social life.

Today, smartphones make visual data collection easier and more accessible.

Key Methods Using Photography:

Photo-voice (PV):

• Participants take photos to share their experiences and perspectives.

• Helps empower communities and support social change.

• Commonly used to document community strengths and social challenges (e.g., pollution,

violence, lack of resources).

• Can be done through online platforms, allowing wider participation.

Photo-elicitation interviews (PEI):

• Use photos during interviews to help participants share memories and ideas.

• Helps gather deeper emotional and personal meanings that may not appear in verbal

interviews alone.

Benefits of Visual Methods:

• Encourages community participation and empowerment.

• Provides richer data through visual storytelling.Source: Padgett,

in depth interviewing

High-quality interviews are the linchpin of success for qualitative studies.

• In-depth interviewing is widely used but has been debated due to greater reflexivity

and awareness of knowledge production (Atkinson & Silverman, 1997; Holstein &

Gubrium, 1995).

• Interviews reflect both macro-level social influences and micro-level dialogue

between interviewer and participant.

Key Ideas:

• Some scholars question the idea of interviews as revealing absolute “truth.”

• Interviews are often second-hand accounts created for a specific research

context (Alvesson, 2011).

Skills for Good Interviewing:

• Be attentive but unbiased.

• Show empathy without being overly leading.

• Use careful and appropriate probing questions.

Understanding Interview Data:

• Participants are more likely to omit information than deliberately lie.

• Researchers must think critically about what is shared and what may be left out.

• In-depth interviewing requires strong communication skills and critical reflection to

gather meaningful qualitative data. Source: Padgett,

Critiques of Interviewing: Realism and

Authenticity

Heavy reliance on interview data raises concerns about

truthfulness, completeness, and gap between what people

say and what they do (Hammersley & Gomm, 2008).

• Interviews may lead to “rehearsed accounts” where interviewees

give socially acceptable answers and interviewers may accept them

too easily (Bourdieu, 1999; Yanos & Hopper, 2008).

• Examples of inauthentic or polished responses include redemption

stories or using familiar professional language (e.g., self-help or

treatment jargon).

• Postmodern views suggest interviews are sometimes better

understood as “dialogic performances” rather than simple

windows into reality.Source: Padgett,

2017

Critiques of Interviewing

Critiques of Interviewing

According to Hammersley (2008), qualitative interviews have been used in

four related but distinct ways:

• as witness accounts of events and experiences;

• as self-reflection by the interviewee;

• as indirect sources of information the researcher can draw on to make

inferences about the interviewee; and

• as purely dialogic or discursive events.

Dialogic or discursive events focus on how people talk, how meaning is

created through conversation, and how ideas are shaped during

interaction. Researchers in social work, nursing, and public health want their research

to help improve real-life practice, not just academic knowledge.

NYSS interviews showed that:

• Many participants started substance use in their early teens.

• Substance use often happened before their first psychiatric

hospitalization.

• Many grew up around drug and alcohol use in their family or community.

This challenges the “self-medication” idea that substance use only

happens because of mental illness (Khantzian, 1985).

• Psychiatric medication may not replace other influences on substance use.

• Environmental factors can strongly affect behavior (Henwood & Padgett,

2007)

Respecting Subjectivity in Interviews

Respect participants’ subjectivity unless there is a strong reason to probe further.

Example: Sharing traumatic experiences, like sexual assault.

Follow-up questions may clarify meaning or check accuracy, but can be unnecessary if:

Other data sources exist (observation, documents, collateral interviews).

Pushing too far may breach trust.

Exclusion of data: Accounts that seem entirely misleading may be removed from the

study.

Truth in qualitative interviews: Focus on respectful engagement rather than proving

“truth”—this usually produces authenticity.

Interview variations: Differ by

• Methodology (ethnographic vs. phenomenological)

• Format (one-on-one vs. group)

• Medium (in-person vs. electronic)

• Structure (informal to formal in-depth)

Source: Padgett,

2017

Informal Field Interviews

Informal field interviews are part of observation and are used to quickly gather

needed information.

• They are context-based and usually not fully planned in advance, but still

focus on research goals.

• These are not casual small talk — they are short, purposeful questions like:

• “Can you tell me how sex education is taught in this school?”

• They help connect observation with formal in-depth interviews by filling

information gaps.

• Usually recorded in field notes (sometimes audio recorded with permission).

• No formal consent is usually required, but researchers must remain respectful

and sensitive to the setting.

• Example: In ethnographic site visits, researchers asked brief questions during

meetings or program visits without disrupting activities

focus group inyerviews

Focus groups bring together a small group of people to discuss a topic and share opinions

(Merton et al., 1956).

• Ideal group size is about 5–7 participants to balance diversity of ideas and participation.

Originally, participants were expected to:

• Be from similar backgrounds

• Not know each other to encourage open opinions.

In real practice, this is often difficult (e.g., in social service agencies).

Moderator’s role:

• Ask open-ended questions.

• Be sensitive, flexible, and supportive.

• Avoid problems like:

• One person dominating discussion

• Some members staying silent

Logistics & Ethics:

• Scheduling can be challenging.

• Providing refreshments or incentives can help participation.

Best format:

• Encourage equal turn-taking.

• Moderator should focus on discussion, not note-taking.Source: Padgett,

2017

individual interviews

Ideally, in-depth interviewing is scheduled in advance, takes place in a private setting

conducive to trust and candor, and is preceded by careful preparation.

Tips for Qualitative Interviewing

1. Familiarize yourself with your questions as much as possible in advance.

2. Ask follow-up questions based on what you are hearing; use the participants’ words when

possible.

3. Avoid leading questions.

4. Explore issues but don’t interrogate.

5. Feel free to not understand (but don’t come across as patronizingly clueless).

6. Try not to rely on questions about feelings—let feelings emerge naturally, and then ask

about them.

7. Encourage participants to share anecdotes and specific experiences—avoid generalities.

8. Monitor personal disclosure; emphasize rapport-building over drawing attention to yourself.

9. Don’t interrupt or try to control the interchange.

10.Accept pauses as natural; break the silence only if the participant seems stuck.

11.Feel free to laugh and appreciate humor.

12.Avoid becoming informal and “knowing” in follow-up interviews.

13.Take notes for follow-up questions, but don’t let them become distracting.

14.Remember that everyone has a “bad interview day

in depth interviews

In-depth interviews vary in structure depending on research goals.

Unstructured interviews:

• Focus on participants’ stories and experiences.

• Use minimal interruptions and follow-up questions.

• Used in phenomenological, life history, and narrative research (Morse, 2015).

Semi-structured interviews:

• Use pre-planned questions, but allow flexibility in order and follow-up probing.

• Common in grounded theory research.

NYRS Study Example:

• Phase 1 → Free-flowing life history stories.

• Phase 2 → More structured questions about drug use, social networks, and services.

Key Practice Points:

• Use open-ended questions.

• Decide which information is must-ask vs. optional.

• Build trust and sensitivity—some topics may emerge naturally without direct questioning.

Interview Format:

• Usually one-on-one, but sometimes two interviewers may be used (one asks questions,

one observes and takes notes).

Source: Padgett,

2017

Linked Interviews

Linked interviews study individuals who are connected by a relationship (e.g.,

couples, parent-child, mentor-mentee).

• Focus is on both personal experiences and the relationship or linkage.

• Usually involve two people, but can include small groups; more people make

analysis more complex.

Sequencing matters:

• Interview individuals separately first, then together in a joint interview.

•Example: Spencer (2006) on mentor-mentee pairs:

• Step 1: Introduce study and get consent

• Step 2: Interview each person individually

• Step 3: Joint interview (1½–2 hours total)

This approach helps researchers understand participants as individuals and in

relation to each other.

Interviewing Children and Vulnerable

Populations

Ethical protection is important for vulnerable groups (e.g., children, people with mental

disabilities).

Interviewing children:

• Children may be vulnerable to adult authority and researcher influence.

• Younger children may have limited verbal skills and attention span.

• Older children and teens have better communication but may still need engaging

methods.

• Helpful methods include:

• Games and role-play

• Videos, photos, drawings, diaries (Alderson & Morrow, 2004; Barker & Weller,

2003).

Example: Children aged 8–13 can participate in short, focused interviews about experiences

like bullying (Berguno et al., 2004).

Interviewing people with mental disabilities:

• Avoid assumptions about their abilities.

• Some may not be able to participate, but exclusion should be carefully justified.

Key balance:

Source: Padgett,

2017

Key Informant, Elite, and Expert

Interviews

Key informant interviews:

• Conducted with people who have insider knowledge of a community or

system.

• Help researchers understand local context and guide further research.

• Do not replace interviews with a wide range of participants.

Elite or expert interviews:

• Include professionals, policymakers, or public figures with specialized

knowledge.

• Provide a top-down perspective on social issues.

Practical Challenges:

• Busy schedules make interviews difficult to arrange.

• Participants may be cautious about sharing information.

• Questions should be well planned and tailored to each person.

Developing the Interview Guide

Interview guide basics:

• Record date, time, location, and interviewer name/initials at the top.

• Ask demographic questions (age, sex, education, etc.) at the end.

Question design:

• Use open-ended questions and keep questions few but flexible.

• Use probes to get more details if participants do not mention information.

Probes can be:

• Planned in advance

• Or asked spontaneously during the interview.

Example — NYRS Domains:

Entering the Program

• How did you get to this program?

• Probes: referral source, choice in entering program, homelessness

history.

Social Networks

• Who can you count on for help?

• Probes: relationship to participant, type of help (financial, childcare, food,

etc.)Source: Padgett,

2017

Developing the Interview Guide

Wording, Flow, and Closing the Interview

Use respectful and clear wording:

• Avoid leading or judgmental questions.

• Example: Instead of asking about long-term goals, ask:

“What is the next step for you?”

Follow with:

“How about the longer-term future—where do you see yourself?”

Process-focused questions (Grounded Theory – Charmaz, 2014):

Ask about events and experiences:

“What led up to...?” “What happened next?” “How did things change over time?”

Guide flexibility:

• Skip irrelevant questions if already answered.

• Start with non-sensitive, open questions to build rapport.

Closing the interview:

• Ask if participants want to add anything.

• Provide respectful closure and debriefing.

• Offer support referrals if participants become distressed.

Source: Padgett,

2017

Elicitation Techniques in Qualitative

Interviews

Purpose: Help participants respond using lists, rankings, or reactions to stimuli (photos,

terms, cards).

Origins: Anthropology – used to understand cultural beliefs and practices (Weller &

Romney, 1988).

Common techniques:

Free-listing: Participants list items in a domain (e.g., drugs, snack foods).

Pile-sorting / card sorting: Participants arrange or rank items from a list.

Benefits:

• Creates quasi-standardized responses that can be quantified.

• Helps identify most important or salient items.

Example – NYRS Study:

Goal: Understand participants’ life priorities.

Method: Card sorting with 12 laminated cards (physical health, mental health, job,

housing, etc.).

Participants chose and ranked items; probing used only if needed.Source: Padgett,

2017

Second (and Third) Interview Guides

Multiple interviews help researchers go deeper into experiences and clarify

information.

Purpose varies by method:

• Phenomenological research → Explore lived experiences more deeply.

• Grounded Theory (GT) → Test and expand ideas using theoretical sampling.

Second interviews often:

Finish unfinished topics from the first interview.

Add new questions based on earlier findings.

Help build trust as participants become more comfortable.

Flexibility is important:

Exact questions cannot always be planned in advance.

Additional questions may be added as research progresses.

Saturation concept:

Interviews continue until no new information emerges.

A Few Guidelines for Starting Out

A qualitative interview is conversational but still guided by research goals. The

interviewer acts as a curious learner but also provides direction to keep the discussion

focused.

• Pilot test the interview guide with people similar to the study population. This helps

improve:

• Question clarity

• Number of questions

• Wording and flow

If working in a team:

Provide interviewer training using:

• Instruction

• Role-playing practice

Review early interviews to improve skills and techniques.

Plan interview logistics:

• Choose private, comfortable, and safe locations.

• When possible, let participants choose the location.

Build rapport:

• Start and end interviews with small talk (when recording is off).

• This helps participants feel comfortable, respected, and appreciated.

Source: Padgett,

2017

Conducting the Interview: The Importance
of Probes

Probes help go beyond rehearsed answers and uncover deeper, unexpected information.

• Can be planned or spontaneous.

Examples:

• Go deeper: “Can you tell me more about...?”

• Clarify: “Were you homeless when this happened?”

• Steer: “That’s interesting, but can we return to...?”

• Contrast: “How does this compare to...?”

Example – Harlem Mammogram Study:

• Participants mentioned “air” causing cancer spread.

• Interviewers probed gently, revealing beliefs about surgery and cancer.

• Later, research confirmed that airborne pathogens may affect recurrence, showing probes

can uncover valuable insights.

Key points for probes:

Avoid unnecessary or voyeuristic questions.

Steer carefully without disrupting flow.

Use prompts sparingly to clarify vague questions without influencing answers.

This captures the depth, flexibility, and careful use of probes essential in qualitative

interviews.

Source: Padgett,

2017

After the Interview:

Using the Interview Feedback Form

(IFF)

The IFF records:

• Observations about the participant (e.g., hostile, distracted, eager to please)

• Observations about the setting (e.g., interruptions, cleanliness, noise)

• Concerns or ideas for follow-up

• Capture non-verbal cues and context:

• Tone of voice, facial expressions, body language

• Speech patterns, gestures, ambience of the environment

• Handle discrepancies carefully:

• Do not confront participants if words and actions conflict

• Note discrepancies in the IFF; prolonged engagement often clarifies the context

• Provides rich contextual information missing from transcripts and helps guide future

interviews.

Source: Padgett,

2017

Matching Interviewers to Respondents:

Age, Gender, Race, and Other Factors

Why matching matters:

• Can increase comfort and openness on sensitive topics (e.g., bodily functions,

sexuality, health, drug use)

• May influence honesty, tone, and detail in responses

Examples:

• Harlem Mammogram Study: African American women interviewers improved comfort

discussing health and racism

• Young men were more boastful about sexual experiences with male interviewers than

with female interviewers (Miller & Glassner, 2011)

Challenges and considerations:

• Matching by gender, age, race, or social class is not always possible

• Community interviewers can help but may risk privacy concerns or social pressure

• Prior training, skill, and respect often overcome difference

Common Problems and Errors in

Qualitative Interviewing

Interviewer challenges:

• Losing control of the interview or focus groupMust balance listening, probing, and guiding

the conversation.

• Interviews can sometimes feel like losing control of the conversation.

Common mistakes:

• Interrupting the participant’s story or dominating the discussion.

• Poor technology quality in online interviews (audio, internet delays, disconnections).

• Uncooperative participants who give very short answers — remain patient and respectful.

Training and preparation:

• Inadequate training and fatigue can lead to poor questioning or over-familiarity.

• Avoid making questions seem unimportant or leading participants toward certain answers.

• Best practice:

• Maintain balance between staying focused and exploring deeper meanings.

• Use empathy, careful observation, and respectful listening.

Outcome of good interviews:

• Participants feel heard and respected.

• Interviewers may feel satisfied but emotionally tired.

Source: Padgett,

2017

Emotional Issues & Language Challenges

in Qualitative Interviewing

Emotional Issues:

• Sensitive topics may trigger laughter, crying, or anger.

• Novice researchers may overestimate participant fragility.

• Skilled interviewers provide a safe, empathic, nonjudgmental space.

• Interviewers can experience emotional “backwash” from intense stories.

• Debriefing (team discussions after interviews) helps manage emotional impact.

Interviewing in Non-English Languages:

• Language differences add complexity to qualitative research.

• Translation chains can distort meaning; native speakers as partners reduce

errors.

• Many qualitative methods still work across languages with careful planning.

• Non-English qualitative research is growing globally (e.g., Spanish, Portuguese,

French, Russian, Tagalog).

Source: Padgett,

2017

Interviewing Across the Digital Landscape

Digital interviews (email, phone, video, online chat) are increasingly used in

qualitative research.

Advantages:

• More convenient for participants in distant or hard-to-reach locations.

• Allows participants time to think, revise, and reflect on responses.

• Provides access to anonymous or stigmatized populations.

Online communication:

• Includes social media, forums, and chat rooms.

• Can support community discussion and peer support.

• Raises ethical questions about privacy and consent when using public posts as

data.

Limitations:

• Not everyone has equal access to internet technology.

• Risk of excluding low-income or marginalized groups.

Key Principle:

• Choose communication methods that best fit study goals and participant

populations.Source: Padgett,

2017

Using Audio, Video, and Documents

Audio Recording:

• Preferred over note-taking; captures exact words, tone, and ambient sounds.

• Affordable digital recorders and smartphones make it accessible.

• Voice recognition software is not yet reliable for transcription.

Video Recording:

• Less common due to privacy concerns.

• Useful when observing behaviors or interactions is important (e.g., playground bullying,

parent-adolescent communication).

Documents & Archival Materials:

• Includes court records, diaries, photos, videos, letters, and online content.

• Advantages: less reactive, less time-consuming, captures natural data.

• Limitations: may be incomplete, inaccurate, or biased; access may require consent or

compliance with privacy laws (e.g., HIPAA).

• Often used as supplementary data to interviews and observations.

Ethics & Access:

• Always consider privacy, consent, and copyright when using existing or online materials.

• Online sources like blogs or chat rooms need careful ethical handling

Ending Data Collection

Data collection ends when saturation is reached:

• No new themes or information are emerging.

• Data becomes repetitive and sufficient for analysis.

Practical factors also matter:

• Project deadlines

• Time and resource limitations

Study design affects saturation:

• Homogeneous samples → reach saturation faster.

• Diverse or broad studies → require more data collection time.

Qualitative research is flexible:

• May require return visits to the field.

• Some methods (e.g., ethnography, CBPR) require longer engagement.

Emotional transition:

• Ending data collection can feel personal for both researchers and

participants.

• Maintaining respectful contact after study completion is sometimes

appropriate.

Summary of Qualitative Data
Collection

Observation:

• Key for studying natural behaviors and specific places.

• Use prolonged engagement and unobtrusive methods to reduce reactivity.

Interviews:

• Usually in-person, individually or in small groups.

• Requires careful preparation: interview guides, pilot testing, planned and

spontaneous probes.

• Multitasking: ask questions, observe, and note follow-ups; audiotaping is

helpful.

• Multiple interviews increase depth and completeness.

Documents & Archival Materials:

• Nonreactive sources like diaries, letters, and organizational records.

• Authentic, natural materials are valuable; accuracy may vary.

Ending Data Collection:

• Stop when saturation/redundancy is reached or due to practical constraints.

• Emotional impact is common; sensitivity aids in smooth closure