UK Test

Why Study

Only AP6 democratically consolidated; first industrial power

Geography of the United Kingdom

An Island: isolation from continental Europe but close enough to allow interaction (Channel Tunnel); small size; short growing season; temperate climate; population density is one of the world’s highest; no major geographical barriers

Subnations

One State, 4 Distinct Nations; UK (Northern Ireland + GB (England, Scotland and Wales)); UK ruled by England (center of wealth and population; movements of devolution)

British Exceptionalism

The feeling of being European, but with less risk of invasion and more cultural homogeneity

Hegemonic Power

Controlling alliances and international economic order and shaping domestic political developments in countries throughout the world

Legitimacy

Government maintains legitimacy through tradition; no formal written constitution

Common Law

Allows the decisions that public officials and courts make to set precedents for later actions and decisions, eventually forming a comprehensive set of principles for governance; rational-legal authority: legitimacy through rule of law

Magna Carta

Protection against absolute power and arbitrary acts; trial by jury, due process, protection of private property (often ignored)

Petition of Right

Trial by jury, rule of law, tax only w/Parliament’s consent, no martial law during peace

Bill of Rights and Glorious Revolution

Consent of Parliament for most acts of monarch; free elections, right to petition king

Great Reform Acts

Increased size of electorate and reformed election procedures

Representation Acts of 1884 and 1885

Increased suffrage so much that working class men were the majority of the electorate; by early 20th century, all men could vote

Parliament Act of 1911

Supremacy of House of Commons; HOL can only delay bills for 1 year; 5 year terms for HOC

Women’s Suffrage

1918: most women could vote; by 1928, all women could vote

Beveridge Plan

Five Giant Evils; argued for social progression which required a coherent government policy during WWII

Collective Consensus

Establishment of welfare state (NHS) and commitment to Keynesian economics and state intervention; dismantling of British Empire

Economic Crisis

Decline in industrial production; loss of colonies, oil prices, labor union demands (1970s)

Winter of Discontent

Widespread labor union strikes lead to Thatcher’s victory

Tony Blair

“New Labour”/Third Way

David Cameron (PM)

Hung Parliament, Coalition government with Nicholas Clegg, Deputy PM (Liberal Democrat)

Brexit

The withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union; supported by Teresa May (PM) and Boris Johnson (PM); a contentious issue, but most British are generally loyal to the Crown

Gradual Extension of Voting Rights

Spurred by Industrial Revolution; Great Reform Act of 1832 – 300,000+ men gained right to vote; 1867 – working class people; 1918 – women age 28+, men 21+; 1928 – women 21+

Welfare State

Set of public policies designed to provide for citizens’ needs through provision of pensions, health care, unemployment insurance, and assistance to the poor; created due to the Collective Consensus after WWII (most Britons and all major political parties agreed that governments should work to narrow gap between rich/poor); generally more socially liberal than the US (less emphasis on religion and traditional family values)

Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher (Conservative Party, PM 1979-90); blamed weakened economy on socialist (collectivist) policies; first female PM; Iron Lady; privatized business and industry (neoliberalism); centralized power; cut back on social welfare programs; tough on labor unions; returned to market force controls on economy

Neoliberalism

Revival of classical liberal values that promote free competition among businesses within the market, including reduced gov’t regulation and social spending

The Constitution

The “unwritten” constitution (The Magna Carta (1215)-limits on monarch; The 1689 Bill of Rights-outlined specific civil rights, increased power of Parliament; The Acts of Union (1709)-united England and Scotland; Various acts of Parliament

No Constitution: Pros and Cons

Pros: Unparalleled flexibility; responsive to the majority; Cons: Criticism of lack of written constitutional protections for basic rights; concerns that lack of written constitution means it can be changed too easily; focus on the majority over minority needs

Head of State

Current: King Charles III; reigns but does not rule; “All the power but no power”

Powers of the Head of State

Gives PM advice in weekly meetings; approves acts of legislature “royal assent”; allows PM to form gov’t; opens Parliament for government sessions; commander-in-Chief (in theory)

Head of Government

Current: Keir Starmer (Prime Minister); MP and leader of majority party; serves as long as he/she is leader of majority party

Powers of the Head of Government

Chooses cabinet and shapes policy for govt; oversees the operation of the Civil Service; de-facto Commander-in-Chief

The Crown

Basically a ceremonial figure; can only act on the behest of the Cabinet; bill passed in 2011 eliminated primogeniture-eldest born of each generation, regardless of male or female, now inherits the throne; monarchy remains fairly popular in UK, though King Charles is more controversial

Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022

Removes limitations FTPA 2011 placed on the “royal prerogative”

The Prime Minister

Real power concentrated in PM and cabinet; must be an elected member of the legislature; once named by the Monarch (a formality), the PM chooses their cabinet; Pre-Brexit, PMs could rely on a parliamentary majority- strong party discipline in the UK; currently Keir Starmer

Checks on Prime Pinister’s Power

Can advise the King to call an early election (Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022); power can be checked through a vote of no confidence-either whole cabinet must resign and be replaced, or new elections must be called; Question Time: televised period occurring weekly where PM must answer questions from the MPs

Expectations of the Prime Minister

Must maintain support of their party and fellow MPs; must direct the cabinet activity and smooth over differences; as party leader, must direct party to victory in general elections; in some cases, must hold together a coalition; provides national leadership; acts as a diplomat; must be exceptional debaters, communicators, and negotiators

Fixed Parliament Act 2011

Set Five-Year Terms of Parliament; unless there is a Vote of No Confidence OR a 2/3 vote in H.O.C. for new elections (snap election)

Snap Election

An election that is called earlier than the one that has been scheduled; repealed in 2022-Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act

Government: The Cabinet

Center of policy-making; members are party leaders from both houses (though usually H.O.C.), chosen by PM and approved by the King; “Collective Responsibility”: tradition that requires all members of the cabinet either to support government policy (publicly) or to resign; all must take responsibility (not enforced by all PMs); cabinet members not policy experts, they rely on the bureaucracy to provide expertise; approx. 2 dozen ministers of the cabinet

The Legislative Branch: Parliament

Bicameral: weak upper House of Lords, powerful lower House of Commons; House of Commons (650 members elected for max 5 year terms (unlimited); members of the government and leaders of the opposition party sit in the front rows; “backbenchers” are the other MPs who sit behind their leaders; a politically neutral Speaker of the House presides over sessions); House of Lords (Over 800 members, called peers; most appointed, some positions inherited; Life Peers are “distinguished citizens” appointed for life by the Crown on the recommendation of the PM; Law Lords are top legal experts, appointed for life; used to serve a role in legal appeals; Hereditary Peers are members of the aristocracy (dukes, earls, barons, etc.) who can pass their title on to their children; as of 1999 reforms, # limited to only 92 seats at any time (there are over 750 eligible hereditary peers))

Powers of the House of Commons

Party discipline very strong; individuals have less power; MPs debate issues; participate in legislative committees; vote on legislation proposed by the government; can remove the PM/cabinet through a vote of no confidence; individuals can propose legislative measures; mostly deliberates, ratifies, and scrutinizes policies that are proposed by the executive

Powers of the House of Lords

No veto power over legislation; they can delay legislation up to one year; they can try to persuade the government to amend legislation; act as experts and advisors; attempts at reforms to the House of Lords have largely been rejected

The Judiciary Structure

Supreme Court created in 2009 (Constitutional Reform Act 2005); 12 Members, initially also “law lords” in the House of Lords– 1 President, 1 Deputy President, 10 Justices; originally selected by the Lord Chancellor (the minister who heads the Judiciary) from among the distinguished jurists; replacements (required to retire by 70) are recommended by a commission: commission formed → selection process → report to Lord Chancellor → recommendation to PM → advisory to the King → King officially appoints

The Judiciary Function

Highest court in the UK for civil matters, highest criminal court in England and Wales; highest appellate court; traditionally no judicial review (because of parliamentary supremacy); any law passed by Parliament was, by definition, “constitutional”; formerly, the law lords of the House of Lords served in this role; politically weak, though has gained some strength (ex: 2017- ruled the Theresa May gov’t could not initiate the Brexit process without an act of Parliament); legal system based on common law (precedent and interpretation), a contrast from stricter code law practiced in rest of Europe

Local Government

Unitary state; no formal powers constitutionally reserved for regional or local governments; parliament remains fully sovereign; it can enact laws at any time to limit or eliminate devolved authority; labour government post-1997 restored power to local governments and regional governments of the UK nations; Blair’s government allowed the city of London to directly elect a mayor and representatives to a “Greater London Assembly”; “Big Society”- conservative efforts to continue devolution process; allow more power for local governments and citizens in decision-making for local taxation and public services

Regional Government

Historically very limited; each nation has a cabinet minister in the central government, responsible for setting policies in each region; Scotland and Wales voted in referenda to create their own legislatures; England is the only nation without its own regional gov’t; Good Friday Agreement

Good Friday Agreement

Between Catholics and Protestants in N. Ireland; allowed for the reestablishment of the assembly; IRA had to renounce armed struggle in return for political reforms; gave the Catholic population more say in local government (proportional representation); eased border restrictions between N. Ireland and Rep. of Ireland (complicated by Brexit); violence continues

Civil Society

Strong (democracy); quangos: policy advisory boards appointed and approved by the government to bring officials and interest groups together to develop policy (Conservatives started to try to stop them)

Trades Union Congress (TUC)

Confederation of UK’s largest trade unions and most important interest group; weakened by shrinking # of blue-collar workers and union activity restricted by Conservative governments (Thatcher); Labour Party reforms eroded TUC’s control within the party

Confederation of British Industry (CBI)

Most important business organization; represents the main industrial and financial interests; usually favors Conservative policies, but has no formal links to a part; have exerted considerable influence in gov’t

Class Cleavages

Largest cleavage; 20th century social reforms closed some of the gap in wealth; “old boy networks”: education as a legacy of social divide; upper class attend elite private schools and then Oxford or Cambridge; tastes and leisure reaffirm classes: cricket vs. football, sherry vs. beer, opera vs. the pub, variations in accent/speech

Ethnic Cleavages

Growing immigration since 1960s (especially from former British colonies); racial tension between whites and non-European minorities; xenophobia and anti-immigration attitudes; plurality system; strengthening of parties such as UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the Brexit Party/Reform UK: both right-wing, populist parties

Religious Cleavages

Concerns over integration of Muslim population growing since 2005 terrorist attacks (“7/7”); mostly politically secular; religious cleavages becoming more significant; Islamic extremism, racially charged riots = evidence of tension; The Troubles; Good Friday

National Cleavages

Most UK citizens first identify themselves by their nationality (Irish, English, Scottish, Welsh); more support for national autonomy; Scottish National Party, Welsh Plaid Cymru advocated for devolution; Blair delivered → establishment of local legislatures for N. Ireland, Scotland, and Wales; challenges to the British national identity: UK’s growing economic and cultural integration with Europe and then weakening of these ties with Brexit

The Troubles

Northern Ireland: religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics (discriminated against); Irish Republican Army (IRA) turned to violence; British army and illegal Protestant paramilitary organizations fought back; 3 decades; 4,000 casualties

Political Culture

Pragmatic (overall less concerned with overarching ideological principles, more willing to consider each political problem, no major defining political moment, slow evolution, little radicalism)

Electoral System at a Glance

Single-member districts plurality; 650 districts; districts (constituencies) are based on population; elections every 5 years; system favors and maintains the dominance of the Labour and Conservative parties; generally produces clear majorities in the House of Commons, even without a clear majority of votes; smaller parties want reform, but no real action because majority parties have the power

2010 Election

No party managed to obtain an absolute majority in Parliament resulting in a hung parliament; Conservatives-Liberal Democrat coalition

2011 Referendum

Voters could choose between keeping the existing SMDP system OR implementing a majority SMD system known as alternative vote (AV/candidate ranking); failed because main parties were against it

2017 Snap Election

Held by Theresa May; the Tories lost seats and their Parliamentary majority; resulted in a “minority government” (party still has most seats but less than half of total); had to rely on a confidence and supply agreement (less formal coalition) with Ireland’s Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)

Recent Prime Minister Changes

2019-Theresa May resigns; replaced by Boris Johnson without a general election; after several scandals, including sexual allegations against Deputy Chief Whip Chris Pincher, Boris Johnson announced his resignation in mid 2022; he was replaced by Liz Truss in late 2022; Truss is the UK’s shortest serving Prime Minister, resigning after only 50 days; Rishi Sunak (former Chancellor of the Exchequer or Finance Minister) became PM to replace Truss

Alternative Vote (AV)

AV would allow voters to rank candidates by preference; process of elimination and reallocation continues until a top candidate obtains majority of votes

Voter Behavior

British voters select all 650 members of the House of Commons; usually about 60-70% of eligible voters participate; British campaigns are short (less than a month); voters in the UK are more likely to know what each party stands for and how they differ from the other parties; focus tends to be on party rather than candidate

Party System

“Two-and-a-half-party system”; 1970-change from two party to less clear (more smaller parties); Labour and Conservative continue to dominate

Labour Party

Grew from trade union movement; aimed to giving working class a voice; socialist ideology (welfare state+some state owned industry; factions of socialists and more moderates; post-1980: more centrist; appeals to young working class; PM Tony Blair (1997-2007), Jeremy Corbyn (Labour Party leader 2015-2020)

Conservative Party

Moderate right; “Pragmatic conservatives”; neo-liberal policies; austerity (David Cameron); factions of traditional conservative pragmatism, limited welfare state, radical reforms, neoliberalism; PM Margaret Thatcher (1979 to 1990), PM David Cameron (2010-2016), PM Theresa May (2016-2019), PM Boris Johnson (2019-2022)

Liberal Democrats

Formed in 1988 as merger of Liberal Party (Whigs) and defectors from the Labour Party; left-center; ideology mix of individual freedom and weak state + collective equality; supporters of EU; have led calls for electoral reform, current system prevents any major power; Nick Clegg (party leader 2007-2015)

UKIP (UK Independence Party)

Anti-EU, anti-immigration, populist; support in EU elections; capitalizes on growing “Euro-phobia” and xenophobia; “single-issue” party

Brexit Party (Reform UK)

Founded by popular UKIP member Nigel Farage; Euro-skeptic, xenophobic, populist; favored Brexit

Scottish National Party

Center-left, social democratic; focus on Scottish nationalism; campaigns for Scottish independence

Plaid Cymru

Center-left/left-wing; focus on Welsh nationalism; campaigns for Welsh independence

Sinn Fein

Left-wing, socialist; focus on Irish nationalism; campaigns for independence and to unite Ireland

Economy at a Glance

Currency: British Pound or Pound Sterling £; never accepted the euro even during membership in EU; UK GDP: 2.27 trillion USD (2022); economic liberalism (more privatization); shifts from post-WWII social-democratic values to Thatcherism (softened but continued); declined economically since then; service sector (financial services, tourism); oil, steel, gas still play an important role

Financial Crash (2008)

David Cameron (Conservative Party 2010 - 2016); took party in more mainstream direction; reached out to youth; promoted agendas including climate change, citizen activism, reduction of gap between rich and poor and reduction of global development gap

2010 Election – Hung Parliament

When no party has a majority of seats in Parliament; led to Conservative - Liberal Democrat coalition; Nick Clegg (Lib Dem) – Deputy PM

Conservative-Liberal Coalition

“Austerity”: series of sustained reductions in public spending; aimed at reducing welfare state and reducing deficits; faced backlash from public-sector unions, university students, and others

2015 Election

Conservatives (Tories) win Majority; promises EU In/Out Referendum; continue austerity measures; conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9% of the vote share

Economic Reasons for Brexit

Half of EU’s budget spent on agricultural subsidies that provided little benefit to UK; unwillingness to adopt the euro; fear that immigrants would take local jobs; feeling that the UK was paying more into the EU than other countries

Social/Political Reasons for Brexit

Fear of imposing “Continental values”; fear of unrestricted migration; xenophobia; concerns over undermining of national sovereignty

Bye EU

The UK left the EU at 11 p.m. GMT on 31 January 2020; this began a transition period that is set to end on 31 December 2020, during which the UK and EU will negotiate their future relationship;The UK remained subject to EU law and remains part of the EU customs union and single market during the transition, but is no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions

Economic Effects of Brexit

Cost Britain ~$170 billion; UK economy got worse since leaving the EU; UK required to pay “the divorce bill”, withdrawal fees to the EU amounting to over $40 billion; has contributed to high inflation; increased import costs leading to unstable supply of food; decreased value of the British pound; decrease in foreign investment

Boris Johnson’s Plans for Brexit

Use freedom from EU to lower tariff barriers; enter into new trade deals with other countries; employ funds previously spent on EU for domestic affairs; supporters argue Brexit will unleash British trade and enhance productivity

Foreign Affairs

Struggles to define its role in the modern world; identifies more with former colonies than with Continental Europe and the US; willing to defend interests using military; participation in International Organizations