Cognition

Retrieval practice

Actively recalling information from memory to strengthen learning and improve long-term retention

Testing effect

The phenomenon where retrieving information through testing improves memory more than rereading or passive review

Active recall

A study method that involves actively bringing information to mind rather than simply reviewing it

Passive review

Studying by rereading or highlighting material without actively trying to recall it, which is less effective for retention

Low-stakes quizzing

Frequent, low-pressure tests used to reinforce learning and improve retention without major grade consequences

High-stakes exams

Tests with significant consequences for grades that often cause stress and are less effective alone for learning

Massed studying

Cramming or repeating material in a short period, which leads to quick learning but poor long-term retention

Varied practice

The technique of changing the focus, context, or type of material during learning sessions, rather than focusing on a single, repetitive task.

Massed practice

single-minded, rapid-fire repetition of something you're trying to burn into memory, the 'practice-practice-practice' of conventional wisdom

Blocked practice

a learning strategy where you repeatedly drill a single skill or type of problem before moving on to the next, which often creates a false sense of mastery during practice but leads to poorer long-term retention compared to varied or interleaved practice

Interleaving

mixing different, related topics or forms of practice within a single study session, rather than focusing on one topic exclusively

Spacing effect

a learning principle where distributing study sessions over time (spaced repetition) yields better long-term retention than cramming (massed practice)

Generation effect

the cognitive benefit of trying to solve a problem or answer a question before being taught the solution

Researchers want to compare the effects of immediate versus delayed feedback on learning and retention. They divide students into two groups, both of whom take the same closed-book practice test on a chapter they just studied. Group A sees the correct answer right after each question (immediate feedback). Group B finishes the entire test before receiving any corrective feedback, then reviews the correct answers a few minutes later (delayed feedback). Both groups are tested again one week later. Based on what you know about retrieval practice and feedback timing, which outcome is most likely?

Group B (delayed feedback) will perform better than Group A on the one-week test.

Which of the following are potential drawbacks of relying solely on high-stakes exams for assessment?

They may not accurately reflect a student's true understanding of the material. They can increase test anxiety and stress. They don't provide opportunities for learning from mistakes.

In a study on the effectiveness of different study techniques, researchers divided students into three groups. Group A studied by rereading their notes, Group B studied by taking practice tests, and Group C studied by summarizing the material in their own words. After a month, all groups were tested on the material. Based on what we know about effective learning strategies, which group would you predict to perform best on the test?

Group B (taking practice tests)

Researchers conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of testing versus studying on long-term retention of information. They set up the following conditions: Repeated Study (SSSS): Students studied a passage four times. Single Test (SSST): Students studied the passage three times and then took one recall test. Repeated Test (STTT): Students studied the passage once and then took three recall tests. After these initial learning sessions, all students took a final recall test either 5 minutes later or 1 week later. Which outcome do you think is most likely?

The Repeated Study (SSSS) group will perform best on the 5-minute test, but the Repeated Test (STTT) group will perform best on the 1-week test.

Desirable difficulties

Short-term impediments that make learning feel harder and slower but lead to stronger, more permanent retention and better transfer of knowledge.

Long-term retention

The ability to remember and apply information over a significant period of time, which is strengthened by the mental strain of effortful learning.

Short-term performance

A misleading measure of learning that refers to immediate speed or fluency during practice, which often does not translate into lasting memory.

Deep processing

The act of thinking about the meaning of new material and connecting it to existing knowledge, which creates more durable memory traces than simple repetition.

Shallow processing

A surface-level approach to learning, such as rereading or highlighting, that creates a false sense of mastery without building strong mental connections.

Retrieval cues

Mental anchors or associations that help you find and pull information out of your long-term memory when you need it.

Effortful retrieval

The act of struggling to recall information from memory, which triggers a biological process that strengthens neural pathways and prevents forgetting.

Active recall

The practice of testing yourself by pulling information from your mind rather than reviewing it from a source, making the knowledge more accessible for the future.

Encoding

The initial process of converting new sensory information into mental representations in the brain, creating a fragile and temporary memory trace.

Consolidation

The process where the brain stabilizes and organizes memory traces, moving them from short-term to long-term storage and integrating them with prior knowledge.

Cognitive effort

The mental energy and focus required to process information, where higher levels of struggle during the learning phase typically lead to better mastery.

Write-to-learn method

An elaborative technique where you express new ideas in your own words, such as through journaling or reflection, to deepen understanding and solidify memory.

Sensation

The raw, unprocessed input of sensory information from the environment, involving the detection of physical stimuli by sensory organs and transmission of that information to the brain

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes, interprets, and gives meaning to sensory information by integrating it with prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations to create a meaningful representation of the world

Hierarchical processing

The way sensory information is analyzed and interpreted at multiple levels, with each successive level dealing with more complex and abstract features of the input

Bottom-up processing

A process that begins with raw sensory data and works upward to more complex cognitive processes, where lower-order neurons activate higher-order feature nets

Top-down processing

The influence of higher-level cognitive processes — such as expectations, prior knowledge, context, and goals — on the interpretation of sensory information, where higher-order feature nets activate lower-order neurons

Feature detectors

Neurons that respond to specific, simple aspects of visual stimuli, such as lines, edges, orientations, or directions of motion, acting as the building blocks of visual perception

Feature nets

Interconnected groups of feature detectors that work together to process more complex visual information by combining input from simpler detectors to recognize more intricate patterns and shapes

Excitatory connections

Neural connections where the activation of one neuron increases the likelihood of activation in connected neurons, helping to amplify and propagate signals corresponding to relevant features

Inhibitory connections

Neural connections where the activation of one neuron decreases the likelihood of activation in connected neurons, playing a vital role in enhancing contrast and sharpening perception of edges and boundaries

Parallel processing

The brain's simultaneous analysis of different aspects of visual stimuli through distinct neural pathways at the same time, such as processing object identity and spatial location independently

Ventral stream ("what" pathway or perception pathway)

A visual processing pathway extending from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, primarily responsible for object recognition, identification, and conscious perception

Dorsal stream ("where" pathway or action pathway)

A visual processing pathway projecting from the primary visual cortex to the parietal lobe, involved in spatial processing, motion detection, and guiding actions

Object discrimination task

An experimental task in which subjects are presented with two objects and must learn to select the correct one for a reward, testing the ability to recognize and differentiate objects based on visual features

Landmark discrimination task

An experimental task in which subjects must choose between two identical objects based on their proximity to a visual landmark, testing the ability to make spatial judgments

Object agnosia (or visual agnosia)

A condition in which a person is unable to recognize or interpret visual stimuli such as common objects, despite having functional eyes

Prosopagnosia (face blindness)

A condition in which a person loses the ability to recognize faces, even familiar ones, while retaining the ability to recognize other objects

Alexia (word blindness)

A condition in which individuals lose the ability to read while retaining other language abilities such as writing and speaking, typically resulting from damage to the left occipito-temporal region

Achromatopsia (color blindness due to cortical damage)

A condition caused by brain damage in which a person loses the ability to perceive color, without necessarily affecting form or motion perception

Akinetopsia (motion blindness)

A condition caused by brain damage in which a person loses the ability to perceive motion, without necessarily impacting color or form perception

Predictive coding model

A theory proposing that the brain constantly generates top-down predictions about incoming sensory input based on prior knowledge, compares them with actual bottom-up sensory input, and uses any discrepancies to update its internal models

Garden path sentences

Grammatically correct sentences that initially lead readers to an incorrect interpretation due to the brain's predictive mechanisms, requiring conscious reinterpretation when the initial prediction is violated

Experience-dependent plasticity

The brain's ability to modify its structure and function in response to environmental stimuli and experiences, optimizing perceptual processes for the world an individual inhabits

Regularities of the environment

Common, recurring patterns and features in one's surroundings that the brain learns to anticipate and process more efficiently over time, shaping perceptual sensitivity

Oblique effect

The phenomenon in which people are noticeably better at detecting and discriminating vertical and horizontal orientations than diagonal ones, due to the dominance of horizontal and vertical lines in the human-built environment

Neural pruning

The process by which the brain eliminates neural connections that are less used or less relevant, specializing in processing stimuli most important to an individual's environment, such as the speech sounds of one's native language

Perceptual narrowing

The developmental process by which infants lose the ability to distinguish between sounds or stimuli not present in their native environment while becoming more attuned to the specific patterns of that environment

Speech segmentation

The perceptual ability to divide the continuous stream of spoken language into individual, distinct words, learned through repeated exposure to the statistical regularities of a language

Perceptual expertise

The enhanced ability to perceive subtle differences in a domain as a result of repeated exposure and focused attention, such as expert radiologists spotting anomalies in X-rays that novices would miss

Sensory substitution

The conversion of information from one sensory modality to another, allowing the brain to interpret a novel form of sensory input as a substitute for a missing sense, as demonstrated by the BrainPort device

As a student listens to a lecture on photosynthesis, she notices similarities to the cellular respiration process she learned last week and mentally notes the connections. This is an example of

An example of Encoding

After a busy day of sightseeing in a new city, a tourist finds that his memories of the morning's activities are clearer and more detailed the next day. This is an example of

An example of Consolidation

Ash, a Pokemon trainer, learns a new battling strategy. He practices it intensively for a week, then doesn't use it for a month. When he tries it again, he finds he performs it even better than before. This improvement is likely due to:

Consolidation (example)

After implementing spaced retrieval into your study routine for calculus, how should your performance change on immediate practice problems?

You will solve fewer problems correctly.

Aphantasia

A condition characterized by the complete absence of a voluntary visual mind's eye, where individuals are unable to form mental images of objects, people, or scenes despite having intact vision and memory.

Visual imagery

The cognitive ability to create a mental representation of an object or scene in the absence of a physical stimulus, functioning as a "quasi-perceptual" experience within the mind.

Hyperphantasia

The opposite end of the imagery spectrum from aphantasia, describing individuals who experience exceptionally vivid, life-like mental imagery that is as clear as actual seeing.

Voluntary imagery

The intentional and conscious act of summoning a mental image, which is the specific process that individuals with congenital aphantasia find themselves unable to perform.

Involuntary imagery

Spontaneous mental images that occur without conscious effort, such as dreams or "flashes" of imagery, which can sometimes remain preserved even in individuals who lack voluntary visualization.

VVIQ (Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire)

A self-report psychological assessment used to measure the intensity and clarity of a person’s mental images, often used to diagnose or categorize the degree of aphantasia.

Imageless thought

The psychological concept that cognitive processes, such as reasoning or recall, can occur through abstract concepts or propositions without the necessity of accompanying visual mental pictures.

Synesthesia

A neurological condition where the stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory pathway, which was notably observed in some of the original aphantasic subjects.

Harry Potter is reading a spell book in the Hogwarts library. Which of the following correctly represent aspects of hierarchical processing in his visual system as he reads? Select all that apply.

correct answers:
Neurons in Harry's visual cortex respond to simple lines and curves in the letters. Higher-level neural networks in Harry's brain recognize whole words in the spell book. Groups of neurons in Harry's brain activate in response to specific letter shapes.

incorrect answers:
Harry's brain immediately understands the meaning of the spells without processing the individual words. Harry's dorsal stream processes the spatial layout of the text on the page.

Which of the following are examples of top-down processing in perception? Select all that apply.

correct answers:
Recognizing a face of a friend in a crowd while waiting for them. Interpreting ambiguous sounds differently based on expectations. Recognizing a word based on context in a sentence.

incorrect answers:
Perceiving depth in a 2D image due to shading. Detecting a specific color in a visual scene.

In the popular game "Among Us," players must quickly identify impostors among crewmates. Which of the following aspects of this game involve top-down processing? Select all that apply.

correct answers:
Using prior knowledge of typical impostor behavior to spot suspicious actions. Interpreting a crewmate's actions as suspicious based on the context of the game. Quickly identifying emergency button locations based on previous games.

incorrect answers:
Detecting movement of characters on the screen. Recognizing the basic shapes and colors of the characters.

System 1

The brain's fast, automatic, and emotional mode of thinking that operates with little or no effort and no sense of voluntary control.

System 2

The brain's slower, more effortful, and logical mode of thinking that allocates attention to the demanding mental activities that require it.

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort being used in the working memory, which when increased causes System 2 to prioritize tasks and potentially neglect peripheral information.

Ego depletion

A state of diminished willpower and self-control resulting from the exhaustion of mental energy after performing tasks that require significant System 2 effort.

Flow

A state of effortless concentration and deep involvement in an activity where the sense of time and self-consciousness disappears, representing a rare form of optimal experience that does not deplete mental energy.

Pupillometry

The measurement of pupil dilation as a reliable physiological indicator of mental effort and the intensity of cognitive processing happening in System 2.

Executive control

The function of System 2 that involves directing attention, suppressing impulses, and overseeing the suggestions made by System 1.

Rationality

The capacity for logical reasoning and the active engagement of System 2 to check the validity of intuitive impulses and beliefs.

Intelligence

The ability to engage System 2 for complex computations and the efficient allocation of attention to solve difficult problems.

Intuition

The immediate and automatic thoughts or feelings generated by System 1 based on associative memory, which System 2 often adopts as beliefs or actions without much scrutiny.

Cognitive bias

Predictable errors in thinking that occur when System 1 takes shortcuts or when System 2 fails to properly monitor and correct intuitive impulses.

In the "Matrix" series, humans plugged into the Matrix experience a simulated reality. According to the predictive coding model, why might most humans fail to realize they're in a simulation?

Their brains generate predictions that match the simulated sensory input

During a Pokemon battle, a trainer quickly identifies their opponent's Pokemon and its likely moves. Which of the following processes are involved? Select all that apply.

Correct: Perceptual expertise developed through extensive Pokemon battling experience. Top-down processing based on prior knowledge of Pokemon types and abilities. Bottom-up processing of the Pokemon's visual features. Predictive coding to anticipate the opponent's likely moves.

Incorrect: Sensory substitution to "see" the Pokemon's energy levels.

Ash Ketchum, a seasoned Pokemon trainer, can quickly identify different Pokemon species and their potential moves in battle. Which of the following concepts best explain Ash's abilities? Select all that apply.

Correct: Top-down processing. Experience-dependent plasticity. Perceptual expertise.

Incorrect: Sensory substitution. Perceptual narrowing.

Which of the following are examples of top-down processing in perception? Select all that apply.

Correct: Recognizing a face of a friend in a crowd while waiting for them. Interpreting ambiguous sounds differently based on expectations. Recognizing a word based on context in a sentence.

Incorrect: Detecting a specific color in a visual scene. Perceiving depth in a 2D image due to shading.

In the context of language development, neural pruning refers to:

The elimination of neural connections that are not reinforced by linguistic input.

Examples of retrieval practice.

Correct: After a presentation, a speaker reflects on what went well and how to improve next time. After learning a new programming technique, a coder imagines how to apply it to her current project. Without looking at notes, a student writes a summary of the main points from yesterday's lecture. During a seminar, students actively discuss the implications of a recently published research paper. A medical student visualizes the steps of a surgical procedure before practicing on a model. Before a job interview, a candidate mentally rehearses answers to potential questions. A teacher creates a pop quiz for his students on last week's material. Two classmates take turns explaining a complex physics concept to each other without notes. Before starting a new chemistry unit, students list everything they already know about the topic.

Incorrect: A language learner creates colorful flashcards with new vocabulary words. An art student carefully observes and sketches a famous painting at a museum. While studying, a student highlights key passages in her biology textbook. A student rereads her history textbook chapter the night before an exam. A history buff copies dates and events from a timeline into his notebook. A group of students watch a documentary about climate change for their environmental science class.

Inattentional blindness

The failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused on something else, not due to any visual impairment, but because attention is directed elsewhere. Example: roughly half of subjects failed to see a gorilla walk through a basketball game when they were focused on counting passes.

Inattentional deafness

The auditory equivalent of inattentional blindness, failing to notice unexpected sounds or performances when attention is occupied by another task. Example: over 1,000 commuters walked past world-class violinist Joshua Bell performing in a subway station with almost none stopping to listen because they were focused on getting to work.

Change blindness

The failure to notice changes in a visual scene due to limits on attention.

Illusion of attention

The mistaken belief that we notice and are aware of far more of the world around us than we actually do. The false confidence that if we are looking in the right direction, we will see what is there. Example: jurors convicted Kenny Conley of perjury because they could not believe he could run past a beating without seeing it.

Low-load tasks

Not defined in this text and introduced as a preview concept. Generally refers to tasks that require relatively little cognitive effort or attentional resources, leaving more capacity available to notice unexpected events.

High-load tasks

Not defined in this text and introduced as a preview concept. Generally refers to tasks that demand significant cognitive effort and attentional resources, leaving little capacity to detect unexpected events. Example: counting both aerial and bounce passes simultaneously caused significantly more people to miss the gorilla, showing that greater cognitive demand increases inattentional blindness.

Feature integration theory

A framework proposing that visual perception occurs in two stages, where individual characteristics like color and shape are first processed automatically before being combined into unified objects through attention.

Preattentive stage

The initial, automatic phase of vision where the mind registers isolated features of an object, such as its color, orientation, or size, without the need for conscious effort or attention.

Focused attentive stage

The second stage of perception where internal attention is directed to a specific location to bind individual features together into a single, coherent object.

Feature search

A visual search task where a target can be identified by a single unique trait, such as a red dot among green dots, causing the target to "pop out" regardless of the number of distractors.