AP Psychology Review 2025

Chronological development

A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred

Continuous development

view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

Anxious attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style

Initiative v. guilt

3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves

Integrity v. despair

8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life)

Occupational identity

Occupations that we engage in define who we are

Scalloped graph

The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

memory retention

ability to recall information

Autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

g (general intelligence)

hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people

Chronological age

Age as measured in years from date of birth

Fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Olfactory system

the sensory system for smell

oleogustus

the taste of fat

supertasters

people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations

Sleep Apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Health Psychology

the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion

Fight-flight-freeze response

an involuntary, physical response to a sudden and immediate threat (or stressor) in readiness for fight (confront), flight (escape) or freeze (avoid detection)

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Behavioral perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control

Evolutionary perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share

Disorganized thinking

disjointed and incoherent thought processes, usually detected by what a person says

Mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

paranoid personality disorder

type of personality disorder characterized by extreme suspiciousness or mistrust of others

Histrionic personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and preoccupation with being the center of attention; emotional shallowness; overly dramatic behavior

Avoidant personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by consistent discomfort and restraint in social situations, overwhelming feelings of inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation.

Dependent personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pattern of clinging and obedience, fear of separation, and an ongoing need to be taken care of.

Dialectical behavior therapies

a type of talk therapy (psychotherapy), based on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), but it's specially adapted for people who experience emotions very intensely.

Lobotomy

A now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

informational social influence

the influence other people have on us because we want to be right

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

Projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Qualitative measures

Data not recorded in numerical form (example, open ended answers from an interview)

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

positive correlation

two variable rise and fall together, such as height and weight

3 standard deviations

99%

effect sizes

A large effect size means that a research finding has practical significance, while a small effect size indicates limited practical applications.

Lifespan development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span

Nature and nurture

the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes

Discontinuous development

view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fine motor coordination

- involves small muscle groups

- usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands

Gross motor coordination

-- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

Rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Critical periods

Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place

Sensitive periods

time periods when specific skills develop most easily

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

Growth spurt

The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Spermarche

first ejaculation

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Mental symbols

represent objects in the real world

Pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Animism

Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life.

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Theory of mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

Concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Systematic thinking

approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion

Formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Abstract thinking

capacity to understand hypothetical concepts

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

Crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood