FUCKED YAY

In order to maintain homeostasis

all living things need a cellular (plasma) membrane around them to regulate what going on inside of the cells

Example of Homeostasis is

Thermoregulation

Conduction

direct contact / lizard on rock

convection

Transfer of heat from gas or liquid / cooling breeze

evaporative cooling

sweating

radiation

chemical reaction/ cellular respiration in us or a warm sunny day

all reptiles except what have two arteries leading to systemic system

birds

fish

two chambered heart

one ventricle S

one artia

ventricle contracts and pushes blood to gills

gills pick up oxygen and travels from gills to the rest of the body (systemic part like brain, kidneys, liver, stomach and then it goes back to heart

Amphibians

three chambered

2 aria

one big ventricle

artia collect blood from skin or lungs

ventricle pumps it out to skin and rest of body

reptiles

three chambered heart or four

second blood vessel with two arteries leading to the systemic system except for birds

Birds and Mammals

four chambered heart

2 clear artia

2 clear ventricles

right atrium contracts

blood vessels from top and bottom vena cava brings blood to the right atrium, right atrium contracts pushes blood through atrioventricular valves into right ventricle contracts push the blood out the semilunar valve out the pulmonary artery

left and right, goes to lungs

left side pulmonary vein brings new oxygenation blood back to the heat back into the left atrium that contracts and it opens left atrioventricular valve which flows into left ventricle, it contracts comes up semilunar valve on left and goes up aorta then it branches off and delivers blood to rest of the body

Cardiac Cycle

Systole heart contract

diastole heart relaxes

what makes the Lub sound

Closing of Atrioventricular valve

What makes the dub sound

semilunar closing

cardiac output

volume of blood per minute from the left ventricle

cardiac output depends on two factors

heart rate(pulse) and stroke volume (amount pumped)

Average human

heart beat 72beats/min

average stroke volume 75ml/beat

resting 5.25 L/min ( blood volume)

normal BP 120/80

Annelids and Mollusks

myogenic cardiac control (pacemakers within muscle)

Arthropods

neurogenic (pacemakers within neurons)

Vertebrates

Myogenic and neurogenic cardiac control

ECG/EKG shows electrical activity of heart

right atrium has SA node Cells is pacemaker in atria and depolarizes and contracts send wave of contraction to both atria

atria muscle is smaller and not as thick or powerful pumps so when atria depolarize there’s an electrical spike

as it spreads to atria it reaches av node and it sends signal to ventricles and it has a short pause when signal spreads to base of ventricles and it contracts bottom up and since its bigger and more muscle there’s a big wave of depolarization and the spike is the ventricles contracting

Blood vessels

heart pumps blood out blood through arteries through rest of body

aorta

arteries branch into smaller arterioles into these microscopic capillaries same volume but spread over much wider area of blood vessels BP drops and get reconnected in venules then veins and goes back to vena cava and eventually the heart

Bp drops as you move down to veins

When you get blood drawn

they stick the needle into the vein because it has low bp

If nurse sticks a needle and it sprays

it means they hit an artery

capillary

osmotic pressure (22mm Hg)

blood pressure (32 mm Hg) ^

osmotic pressure (22mm Hg)

Blood pressure (15mm Hg) -

Net pressure in (-7mm Hg)

Lymphatic system

used to return lost fluid and proteins to blood

lymph

fluid enters the lymph vessels

lymphatic tissues

tonsils, appendix, lymph nodes - connective tissue with WBC’s to attack disease

Wuchereria

when you get bit by a mosquito and a worm gets in this worm tends to get inside the lymphatic capillaries

causes elephantiasis and massive edema(swealing of fluid not getting into circulatory system)

blood comp

plasma 55%

• water

• ions

• plasma proteins

• nutrients

• waste

• gasses - o2

• hormones - testosterone

Cellular elements 45%

• erythrocytes -red blood cells transports oxy. gets rid of co2

• leukocytes- white blood cells - fight infections

• thrombocytes- platelets for blood clotting

cardiovascular disease

heart attack or stroke

first picture is normal blood vessel - open blood flow

second is a picture of arteriosclerosis (general term)

atherosclerosis (specific type based on kind of plague) - blockage in artery 50% blocked

muscle can contracts and bp goes up and down it will put pressure in fluid and will close whole blood vessel off

heart attack is when blood vessel to heart is block and that stream no longer gets oxygens and heart can die

stroke blockage in blood vessel leads to brain and shuts of blood flow to portion of brain

hypertension - high blood pressure

140/90

normal blood pressure

120/80- diastolic

^ systolic

LDL - low density lipid

bad cholesterol

transported with less proteins

HDL- high density lipid

good cholesterol

transported w/ dense proteins

breathing control

occurs in medulla oblongota and Pons

monitors carbon dioxide (converts to carbonic acid)

• lowers pH and causes increase in depth and rate of breathing / means high amount of hydrogen ions aka more acidic bc co2 levels are much co2 binds with water and makes carbonic acid

Oxygen transport to cells of body and co2 is removed

Hemocyanin - used by arthropods and mollusks

Hemoglobin - used by verts

Co2 transported from tissue by erythrocyte

7% as Co2 in blood

23% Co2 and most of the hydrogen ions are attached to hemoglobin

70% transported as Bicarbonate in plasma

deep diving mammals

store large amounts of oxygen in blood and muscles twice as much as us

huge spleen

myoglobin- protein that stores o2

mammal conservation techniques

exhale before diving (prevent bends/pressure)

decrease heat rate and oxygen consumption

reduce blood supply to muscles ( anaerobic)

body defense

innate immunity - u are born with this

barrier defenses - skin

internal defense

body defense acquired immunity

what ur immune system develops

humoral response

cell-mediated response

Innate immunity in invertebrates

chitin (physical barrier) in intestine

Lysozyme and low pH (digests microbial cell walls)

Hemocytes in hemolymph in phagocytosis eat small bacteria that gets there?

and antimicrobial proteins - proteins that binds into foregin pathogens

innate immunity in vertebrates

barrier defense

skin - physical barrier and lysozymes

digestive tract - high acidity and normal bacteria

respiratory tract - mucus and cilia

genitourinary tract - acidity of urine

innate immunity in vertebrates internal defense

PHAGocytic white blood cells

the inflammatory response

antimicrobial proteins

natural killer cells

white blood cells

neutrophils 70% short lived

monocytes5% - macrophages/ long lived in lymphatic tissue

eosinophils 1.5% attacks larger parasites

Inflammatory response

releases histamine - basophils and mast cells

allows for dilation and increased permeability

increased temp due to increased blood flow

cytokines (proteins) direct migration of phagocytes (activates lymphocytes)

Antimicrobial proteins found in compliment system

30 proteins - attack and attached break down something that doesnt belong - born with this

interferon

protein produced by viral infected cells

one cell will release interferon and sends signal for other cells to make chemicals that stop viral reproduction

natural killer cells

Class 1 MHC -major histo combability complex

if class 1 MHC is missing or damages

ur cells will release chemical to destory cells lacking this protein

Acquired immunity vertebrates

use lymphocytes to recongize antigens

T and B

B cells

made in bone marrow

makes antibodies

T cells

made in bone marrow and matures in thymus

have to bind to virus to attack and kills our own cells that are damaged aka virus in red blood cells or cancer in a cell

antigen

particular chemical

such as epitopes

antigen reconginition by lymphocytes

b cells Y shaped receptors made up of 4 polypeptide chains (two heavy and two light)

recognize small fragments

Class 1 MHC

works with cytotoxic T cells

made in viral infected or cancerous cells

Class 2 MHC

Works with both cytotoxic T cells helper T cells

Deprived from foreign materials that have been internalized

engulfs microbe and takes pieces and puts in class2 MHC presents antigen to helper T cell which triggers response for T cells to look for more antigens

immune response

primary response takes 10-17 days from initial exposure to an antigen

produces B and T cells

Secondary immune response

takes 2-7 days from re-exposure

humoral immunity

B cells

produces antibodies that circulate blood in plasma and lymph

cells do not have to be next to antigen to attack

cells-mediated immunity

T cells

cells must be next to antigens to attack

helper T cells

attach to macrophage that has attacked an antigen which often uses CD4 receptors (bind to class 2 MHC)

releases interleukin (cytokine)

activates cytotoxic T cells and Plasma B cells

cell mediated response

cytotoxic T cells

attach to infected cells/cancer cells

usually uses CD8 receptor binds to class 1 MHC

perforin protein makes a pore in membrane

Ion and water enters pores

infected cells lyses

stops homeostasis

Antibodies

IgG (monomer) most common cross placenta

baby has doodooimmune system so baby gets some immunity from mom bc these igg cross from mom

IgA (dimer)

Immunity from mom from breast milk

Active immunity

getting the disease or

vaccinations

passive immunity

antibodies transferred from one individual to another

-pregnancy or breast feeding

injection of antibodies

abnormal immune function

allergies - hypersensitive response to antigens / anaphylactic shock

autoimmune diseases - immune system attacks itself aka lupus

immunodeficiency diseases - lowered immune system aka AIDS

single cell

Nucleus

Dendrites - receptive part of neuron

cell body - where nucleus is

Axon hillock

axon

Synaptic terminal

neuron at -70 mv

cell membrane regulates what goes in and out

sodium and potassium pump three sodium+ out for every two potassium ions it pumps in

Channel proteins that can open and close that are sensitive to sodium or potassium into cell

sodium channel in resting potential is usually closed

potassium is leaky due to gradient difference

more positive ions outside than inside

resting state1

both sodium and potassium activation gates are closed

interior of cells is negative

depolarization state2

sodium activation gates are open on some channels

interior of cell becomes more positive

rising phase of action potential 3

most sodium activation gates are open

potassium activation gates still closed

falling phase of action potential 4

inactivation gates on sodium channels are closed

activation gates on potassium channels are opened

interior of cells becomes more negative

undershoot 5

sodium channels are closed

potassium channels are closing

membrane returns to its resting state

propagation of action potential

localized event

first action potentials depolarizations sets of second action potential

travels in one direction due to refractory period

neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine excitatory to vertebrate skeletal muscles; excitatory or inhibitory to other sites

Norepinephrine - excitatory or inhibitory

Dopamine high (schizophrenia) low Parkinson’s

important in sleep, mood and learning

Runners high - inhibit GABA, increase dopamine

Serotonin - generally inhibitory - aggression, serial killers low levels / depression

GABA - inhibitory

Postsynaptic potentials

subthreshold - doesnt reach threshold

temporal summation - 2 signals do not reach threshold level but occur close enough to set off action potential

spatial summation - two signals are set off at same time setting off action potential

Spatial summation with an inhibitor - doesnt reach threshold

Peripheral nervous system

Somatic nervous system - regulates external environment (usually voluntary) MUSCLES

autonomic nervous system - regulates internal environment (usually involuntary)

Autonomic nervous system

sympathetic division - fight or flight response

parasympathetic - rest or digest reponse

only focus on action on largest organs

know this figure

brain stem

medulla oblongata and Pons controls breathing and heart rate digestion

cerebellum controls coordination of movement and balance (not really part of brain stem)

midbrain

receives integrates and projects sensory information to forebrain

forebrain

epithalamus - pineal gland and choroid plexus

thalamus - conducts information to specific areas of cerebrum

hypothalamus- produces hormones and regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, sexual response, circadian rhythms

cerebrum

with cortex and corpus callosum

• higher thinking

Know this

short term memory done in frontal lobe near eye

long term memory frontal lobe interact with the hippocampus and the amygdala to consolidate

8 essential amino acids for adult humans

9 for infants

Tryptophan

Methinonine

(only found in grains)

Valine

threonine

phenylalanine

leucine

(grains and legumes)

isoleucine

lysine

(only in legumes)

Histidine is essential in infants

unsaturated fatty acids

used to make phospholipids for membranes

Fat Soluble

stored in fat

D, A,K,E

water soluble

excrete in urine

B complex and C

inorganic nutrients

calcium and phosphorous - bones

iron - anemia

iodine- thyroid hormone

sodium, Chlorine , potassium - nerve function, water regulation

intracellular digestion

inside all animals

exclusive to Protista

porifera

extracellular digestion

outside cells

animals above sponges

two types - gastrovascular cavity

alimentary cavity

extracellular digestion

gastrovascular cavity

one opening

found in cnidaria and Platyhelminthes

alimentary cavity

two openings

allows for specialization

• mouth

• pharynx

• esophagus

• crop

• gizzard

• stomach

• intestine

• anus

Idk

Carnivores have a shorter digestive system and small cecum

Herbivores have longer digestive system and large cecum