AP Psychology - ALL TERMS

Combined set of all terms from every vocab list

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmental casing the axons of some neurons; enables fastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Glial cells

Glue cells, helps support and nourish neurons in many ways

Dendrite

A neuron bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Soma/Cell Body

The cell body of a neuron which contains the nucleus and where an electric impulse (action potential) is originally generated

Nucleus

Located inside the cell body, contains DNA

Axon Terminal Buttons

Located on the end of the axon that releases neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons across the synapse

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

The junction between the axon on tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that activate receptors on the receiving neuron which lead to neural firing (new action potential)

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers which block or prevent message from being received by receiving neuron and reduce likelihood of neural firing (no new action potential)

Agonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor, inhibits or blocks a response

Acetylcholine

Usually acts as excitatory signal with role in voluntary muscle contractions and memory

Endorphins

Act as inhibitory signal with role in blocking pain which may trigger some euphoric feelings

Serotonin

Act as inhibitory signal with roles in mood, sleep, and appetite

Norepinephrine

Mostly excitatory signal with roles in increasing arousal (heart rate, breathing, blood pressure)

Dopamine

Can be excitatory or inhibitory signal with roles in reward pathways/addiction, involuntary muscle stability, and attention

Glutamate

Most common executory signal involved in thinking and learning and sleeps/wake cycles

GABA

Act as inhibitory signal with roles in calming and relaxation

Substance P

Act as excitatory signal with role in creating pain signals and inflammation

Substance Use Disorder

Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Psychoactive Drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow the discontinuing and addictive drug or behavior

Depressants

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Opiates

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroine; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

LSD

A powerful hallucinogenic drug, also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Cannabis/Marijuana/THC

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). It's sympathetic division arouses; it's parasympathetic division calms

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Lesion

Natural or experimental damaged tissue of the brain used to study portions of the brain

Reflex Arc

An evolutionary adaption that allows for faster actions by activating spinal motor neurons instead of waiting for signals to reach the brain

Endocrine System

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

Psychotherapy

Treatment involving psychological techniques used to help someone overcome mental, emotional, or behavioral problems.
Example: A therapist meets weekly with a client to help them manage depression through talk-based strategies.

Eclectic Approach

Using techniques from multiple therapeutic approaches rather than just one.
Example: A therapist combines cognitive therapy (changing thoughts) with behavioral techniques (reward systems).

Family Therapy

Therapy that treats the family as a system and works on improving communication and relationships.
Example: A teenager's behavioral issues are addressed by working with both the teen and their parents together.

Group Therapy

Therapy conducted with multiple participants who share experiences and support each other.
Example: People recovering from addiction meet weekly to discuss challenges and progress.

Regression towards the Mean

Extreme or unusual scores tend to move closer to the average over time.
Example: A student who scores extremely low on one test is likely to score closer to their usual average next time…similarly extreme moods and mental states tend to move back towards the average over time.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to find overall trends.
Example: Researchers combine 50 studies on therapy effectiveness to determine which treatment works best.

Nonmaleficence

Obligation to do no harm.

Example: A therapist avoids using techniques that could emotionally damage a client.

Fidelity

Establishing trust and maintaining professional relationships.
Example: A therapist keeps appointments consistent and follows through on commitments.

Integrity

Promoting honesty and accuracy in practice.
Example: A psychologist does not falsify research results or mislead clients.

Justice

Treating all individuals fairly and equally.
Example: A therapist provides the same quality of care regardless of a client's background.

Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

Respecting privacy, confidentiality, and individual differences.
Example: A therapist keeps client information confidential and respects cultural beliefs.

Free Association

Psychoanalytic technique where client says whatever comes to mind to uncover unconscious thoughts. Example: A client talks freely about random memories, revealing hidden fears.

Resistance

Psychoanalytic idea that occurs when patient blocks or avoids certain thoughts during therapy.
Example: A client changes the subject when discussing a traumatic event.

Transference

Psychoanalytic concept where patient is redirecting feelings from one person onto the therapist.
Example: A client begins to treat the therapist like a parent figure.

Client-Centered Therapy AKA Person-Centered Therapy

Humanistic form of therapy that is focused on providing a supportive environment for self-growth.
Example: The therapist listens without judgment, helping the client find their own solutions.

Active Listening

Empathetic listening that includes reflecting and clarifying.
Example: A therapist rephrases what the client says to show understanding.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and valuing the client without judgment.
Example: A therapist supports a client even when they admit to mistakes.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted response with a desired one.
Example: Teaching relaxation instead of fear when seeing a dog. Includes systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning

Systematic Desensitization

Gradual exposure to a feared stimulus while practicing relaxation and involves CLASSICAL CONDITIONING. Example: A person afraid of flying (NS/CS) has relaxation (UCS) paired with a variety of stimuli associated with flying while relaxed: first looks at planes, then visits an airport, then takes a short flight….dont move on to next step until relaxation shown in previous step.

Aversive Conditioning

Associating an unpleasant stimulus with unwanted behavior based on CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.
Example: A clinic puts a nauseating medicine (UCS) in an alcoholic drink (NS/CS) so client can learned a negative association with their bad drinking habit.

Token Economy

Reward system where tokens are earned for desired behaviors and exchanged for rewards based on OPERANT CONDITIONING.
Example: Students earn points for good behavior that can be traded for prizes.

Cognitive Restructuring

Identifying and changing negative or irrational thoughts.
Example: Changing "I always fail" to "I can improve with practice."

Anxiety Hierarchy

Ranking feared situations from least to most anxiety-provoking as a first step in systematic desensitization. Requires reflection so is COGNITIVE.
Example: A fear-of-dogs list might start with seeing pictures and end with petting a dog.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to change thoughts and actions.
Example: A client challenges negative thoughts while practicing new behaviors.

Rational Emotive Therapy

Focuses on changing irrational beliefs that cause emotional distress and lead to unhealthy behaviors.
Example: A therapist helps a client replace "I must be perfect" with more realistic thinking that will allow them adapt in challenging situations.

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

CBT-based therapy emphasizing emotional regulation and acceptance.
Example: A person learns coping skills like mindfulness to manage intense emotions.

Psychotropic Drugs

Medications that affect mood, perception, or behavior by altering brain chemistry.
Example: A person with depression takes medication to improve mood.

Lithium

A mood stabilizer used to treat bipolar disorder.
Example: A person with extreme mood swings takes lithium to stabilize emotions.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

Controlled electrical stimulation of the brain to treat severe depression.
Example: A severely depressed patient receives ECT after other treatments fail.

Psychosurgery

Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue to treat disorders
Example: Rarely used today for severe, treatment-resistant cases.

Lobotomy

An outdated psychosurgery that severed connections in the frontal lobes.
Example: Historically used to treat severe mental illness but caused major side effects.

Anti-Depressants

Drugs that increase neurotransmitters like serotonin and sometimes norepinephrine.
Example: SSRIs increase serotonin to improve mood.

Anti-Psychotic Drugs

Drugs that reduce symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine.
Example: Used to reduce hallucinations and delusions.

Anti-anxiety Drugs

Drugs that reduce anxiety by increasing calming neurotransmitters like GABA.
Example: Benzodiazepines help calm excessive nervous system activity.

Dysfunction

component of a disorder that describes impaired or abnormal functioning that negatively impacts person's career

Distressful

component of a disorder that means it is bothersome to the person suffering or other

Deviance

component of the disorder that describes a behavior that violates significant social norms and is atypical.

Diagnostic Statistical Manual-V (DSM-V)

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders in the USA

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

The diagnostic system of the World Health Organization (WHO) often used internationally in contrast to the DSM-V.

Behaviorial Approach to Disorders

Disorders are caused and learned through operant, classical, and observational conditioning.

Cognitive Approach to Disorders

Disorders are caused by abnormal and unhealthy thought patterns that lead to misinterpretations of the world

Evolutionary Approach to Disorders

Disorders are the result of maladaptive genetic behaviors and mental processes caused by a mismatch between being prepared for survival in our ancestral environment instead of our modern environment.

Biological Approach to Disorders

Disorders are the result of abnormal or damaged brain structure and brain chemistry most likely caused by genetic predispositions towards illness.

Bio-Psych-Social Model

disorders reflect genetic predispositions and physiological states

Medical Model

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

Diathesis-Stress Model

a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability or genetic history is coupled with a precipitating event

Anxiety Disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Specific Phobia

type of anxiety disorder that involves an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function

Acrophobia

fear of heights