AICE Sociology Exam Study Guide

Sociology

The systematic and objective study of human society and social interaction, part of the social science.

Hypothesis

Educated guess about what scientist believe will happen between 2 variables

Scientific Method

a systematic organized series of steps that ensure maximum objectivity & consistency in researching a problem

1. Defining the problem 2. Reviewing the literature 3. Formulating a hypothesis 4. Choosing a research design 5. Collecting the Data (survey, experiments, observations, existing sources) 6. Analyzing the Data 7. Presenting Conclusions

Empirical Research

relies on use of experience, observation & experimentation to collect facts

Variables

Characteristic that can differ from one individual, group or situation to another in a measurable way

Dependent Variables

variable that is changed by the independent variable

Causation

exists when a change in one variable causes a change in another

Correlation (Positive/Negative)

change in one behavior is regularly associated with a change in another

Spurious Correlation

relationship actually based on a 3rd factor/variable; not a direct relationship

Operational definition

what do you hope to investigate? Abstract concept but specific enough to be measurable

Representative Sample

looking for people that are typical of the population of the group to be studied

Random Sample

every person has the same chance as being chosen as another

Validity

The degree to which a measure or scale reflects the phenomenon under study

Reliability

The extent to which a measure provides consistent results

Social Statics

things remain stable or unchanged

Social Dynamics

society allows change in order for it to get better and for development

Social Darwinism

the strongest will survive, the weak will be eliminated

Anomie

when people feel a loss of direction (Durkheim)

Verstehen

meaning in actions - put oneself in the place of others & tries to see situations through their eyes Max Weber

Ideal Type

essential characteristics of a feature of society, (ex attitudes about work - examine many different examples of the feature & then look for the essential characteristics)Max Weber

rugged individualism

Looking Glass Self

who we are based on others perceptions

Charles Horton Cooley- interactive process through which we develop an image of ourselves

Functionalist Perspective

view society as a set of interdependent parts that work together to produce a stable social system; society is held together by consensus (COMTE, SPENCER, DURKHEIM)

Manifest Function

intended & recognized consequence of some element of society

Latent Function

unintended and unrecognized consequence of an element in society

Dysfunctional

negative consequence an element as for the stability of the social system

Conflict Perspective

social behavior understood in terms of conflict between groups, there will always be conflict between groups forces in society that promote competition and change; competition over scarce resources is at the basis of social conflict; those in control set rules to keep what they have (MARX)

Interactionist Perspective

which focuses on how individuals interact with one another in society; interested in the ways in which individuals respond to one another in everyday situations; also meanings that individuals attach to their own actions and to the actions of others; interested in the symbols in society & how people use symbols when interacting (WEBER)

focus on how individuals interact with and influence one another in society

Herbert Spencer

Social Darwinism

Emile Durkheim

society consists of interdependent parts - sociology as an academic discipline, studied suicide

Max Weber

Interested in groups within a society; Verstehen (meanings in actions)

George Herbert Mead

I Self, Me Self; Symbolic Interactionist - self was a social product from observation of others

Charles Horton Cooley

"Looking Glass Self" - who we are based on others perceptions

Collective Behavior

Spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to develop common solutions to unclear situations

Collectivity (Diffuse)

gathering of people who have limited interaction with one another and do not share clearly defined, conventional norms or a sense of group unity

Contagion Theory

The hypnotic power of a crowd encourages people to give up their individuality to the stronger pull of the group

Emergent Norm Theory

Acknowledges that individuals in a crowd have different attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Function

Durkheim; role of the parts - each person has a role in a group

Purpose of the structure

Industrial Revolution

time when industry/people were centralized which created problems - leading to the study of those groups

Rumors and Urban Legend Characteristics

Stories that are passed through a society about an event that may or may not be true, "life lesson" "encourage- discourage behavior" Arise out of uncertain situations, Happens to someone distantly known, Many versions to the same story

Social Movements (characteristics)

Long-term conscious effort to promote or prevent social change: Long Duration, Highly Structured, Deliberate attempt to institute change

Types: Reactionary, Conservative, Revisionary, Revolutionary

Social Structure

network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction

Roles

behavior expected of someone occupying a certain status

Ascribed Status

status position assigned based on qualities automatically given; not based on abilities

Achieved Status

status that is acquired by an individual based on earning it through efforts or skills

Master Status

the status the plays the greatest role in shaping a person's life and determining his or her social identity; can be ascribed or achieved

Role Expectations

the socially determined behavior expected of a person performing a role--doctors treat patients with skill and care

Role Conflict

occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of another status--good parent vs. good employee (2 status positions)

Role Strain

occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status--boss maintaining morale yet wanting overtime (1 status position involved)

Status Symbols

an object that is representative of a status

Social Institution

System of statuses, roles, values, and norms that is organized to satisfy one or more needs of

Exchange

RECEIPROCITY; interaction in hopes of a reward; Exchange Theory is based on idea people are motivated by self-interests

Accommodation

COMPROMISE; state of balance between cooperation and conflict

Group

Set of two or more people who interact on the basis of shared expectations who possess some degree of common identity

Preindustrial Societies

type of society where food production, carried out by human and animal labor, is main economic activity

Industrial Societies

type of society in which the mechanized production of goods is the main economic activity; Compulsory education

Postindustrial Societies

type of society in which economic activity centers on the production of information and providing of services

Mechanical Solidarity

people share common tasks and therefore are united in a common whole; Preindustrial; Gemeinschaft (Community)

Primary socialization

members share personal, enduring relationships (family)

Secondary socialization

impersonal, members pursue a specific interest or activity (classmates)

Stratification

division of society into categories, ranks or classes; stratification implies inequality

Social Inequality

unequal sharing of scarce resources

Class System

distribution of scarce resources and rewards is determined on the basis of achieved statuses

Social Mobility

movement between or within social classes or status; upwards and downwards

Horizontal Mobility

movement within a social class or similar occupational rank

Vertical Mobility

movement between multiple social classes or different occupational rank

Intergenerational Mobility

involves status or occupational ranking differences between multiple generations

Socioeconomic Status (SES

combines educational level, prestige, place of residence and income----3 different methods used for determining Social Class

Social Classes in America

Upper Class, Upper-middle, Lower-middle, Working, Working Poor and Under Class; understand occupations, percentage of American population and characteristics of each level

Poverty Effects

life chances and patterns of behavior

Race

category of people who share inherited PHYSICAL characteristics; Sociologists not as concerned with the color of skin rather how people react to these physical characteristics

Ethnicity

set of CULTURAL characteristics that distinguishes one group from another, generally based on national origin, religion, language, customs and values

Minority Groups

category of people who share physical characteristics or cultural practices that result in a group being denied equal treatment; Ascribed Status

Discrimination

denial of equal treatment based on BEHAVIOR of controlling group

*Legal Discrimination---upheld by law

*Institutionalized Discrimination---outgrowth of the structure of society

Prejudice

unsupported generalization about a category of people based on ATTITUDES and stereotypes

Racism

Belief of superiority of one race over another

Cultural Pluralism

allowing each group in society to keep unique cultural identity (Chef Salad)

Legal Protection

legal steps to protect rights of minority groups

Population Transfer

minority group transferred to a new territory; Reservation system in U.S.

Genocide

Extermination -intentional destruction of a population and Ethnic Cleansing - removing through terror, expulsion and murder

Gender Roles

specific behaviors and attitudes society establishes for men and women

Gender Identity

awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture

Wage Gap

statistics that show women on average are paid less for doing the same job as a man

Glass Ceiling

invisible barrier that prevents women from gaining upper level positions in business

double burden

expectations women face of not only working full-time outside home has also the household duties

Heredity

the transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to children

Significant Others

parents, siblings, relatives and others who have a direct influence on us

Peer Groups

individuals with similar age and social characteristics

Forced Socialization

When you are taught skills to live in the larger society: schools: cultural values, patriotism

Workplace Socialization

the expectations that are set for how you will act in the work environment

Re-socialization

break from past experiences - learning of new values and norms - directed towards and individual's personality & social behavior

Nuclear Family

one or both parents and their children - most common family form recognized by Americans, maybe family of orientation & family of procreation

Extended Family

2 or more generations that live together (either in the same house or in the same neighborhood or area)

Kinship

network of people who are related by marriage, birth or adoption - can be very large

Primary Relatives

closest relatives from orientation and procreation (mother, father, siblings, spouse, children)

Secondary Relatives

next level of relatives (grandparents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, cousins, in-laws, nephews, nieces)

Marriage

set of norms that are established between married individuals - how society sees them

Monogamy (Serial)

one man and one woman, viewed throughout time as the preferred relationship (one at a time)

Polygamy

marriage with multiple partners, expectation is that you can support all of your spouses - even when legal it is not practiced that much since the cost is prohibitive

Polygyny

one man marries several women

Patriarchy

father holds authority