History Sem 2

Migration Period (ca. AD 350–850)

A time when many groups moved across Europe, helping break down the Roman world and form early medieval kingdoms.

Turkic Peoples (Khazars, Bulgars, Volga Bulgars)

Steppe groups who built powerful states and controlled major trade routes in early medieval Eurasia.

Slavic Peoples (Moravians, Kyivan Rus)

Early Slavic societies that formed important states and shaped the cultural and religious development of Eastern Europe.

Cyril and Methodius

Byzantine missionaries who created Old Church Slavonic, the first written Slavic language, to spread Christianity.

Krum the Fearsome

A strong Bulgar ruler known for major victories over the Byzantines and expanding Bulgar power.

Volga and Dnieper Trade Routes

River routes linking Northern Europe to Byzantium and the Islamic world, used heavily by Vikings and Slavs.

Ibn Fadlan

A 10th‑century Arab traveler whose writings describe the peoples of the Volga region, including the Rus.

Macedonian (Byzantine) Renaissance (ca. AD 850–1050)

A cultural revival in Byzantium marked by advances in art, literature, and learning.

Basil II the Bulgar Slayer

A powerful Byzantine emperor famous for defeating the Bulgarians and strengthening the empire.

Cherson

A Byzantine city in Crimea important for trade and diplomacy, and the place where Vladimir of Rus was baptized.

Vladimir the Great

The ruler of Kyivan Rus who converted to Christianity and helped spread the religion throughout his realm.

Varangian Guard

An elite unit of Scandinavian and Rus warriors who served as the Byzantine emperor’s personal bodyguards.

Arab Slave Trade

A long‑running system in which enslaved people were traded across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia by Arab and Islamic states.

Umayyad Emirate in Spain (ca. AD 750 – 1031)

A Muslim state founded in Iberia by Umayyad refugees after the Abbasid overthrow. It became a wealthy, culturally vibrant kingdom centered in Córdoba.

Abd al-Raḥmān I

The Umayyad prince who escaped the Abbasids and established the independent Umayyad rule in al-Andalus in 756. He unified the region and laid the foundations for Córdoba’s rise.

Córdoba, the ‘Ornament of the World’

The capital of the Umayyad Emirate/Caliphate, famous for its libraries, scholars, architecture, and religious diversity. It was one of the most advanced cities in medieval Europe.

Convivencia

Describing the coexistence, sometimes peaceful, sometimes tense, of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in medieval Spain. It highlights cultural exchange but doesn’t mean perfect harmony.

Sephardic Jews

Jewish communities living in Iberia under Muslim and later Christian rule. They became known for scholarship, poetry, philosophy, and later spread across the Mediterranean after expulsion.

Mozarabs

Christians living under Muslim rule in al-Andalus who adopted aspects of Arabic language and culture. They maintained their Christian faith but blended traditions.

Berbers and the Maghreb

People from North Africa who formed much of the Muslim army that conquered Iberia. The Maghreb refers to the western part of North Africa, including Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.

Taifa Period

The era after the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate (1031) when al-Andalus fractured into many small, competing kingdoms. These taifas were culturally rich but politically weak.

Almohad dynasty (al-Muwahiddun)

A North African Muslim dynasty that conquered parts of Iberia in the 1100s–1200s. They enforced stricter religious policies and built major architectural works.

Maimonides

A famous Jewish philosopher, legal scholar, and physician from Córdoba who later lived in Egypt. His works, like The Guide for the Perplexed, shaped Jewish and Islamic thought.

Reconquista

The long process (8th–15th centuries) in which Christian kingdoms in northern Spain gradually expanded southward, reclaiming territory from Muslim rule. It ended in 1492 with Granada’s fall.

El Cid

A Castilian knight and mercenary (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar) who fought for both Christian and Muslim rulers. He became a legendary hero in Spanish literature.

Emirate of Granada and the Alhambra

The last Muslim state in Iberia (1238–1492), known for its cultural brilliance and diplomacy. The Alhambra is its palace complex.

Harald Bluetooth (958–986)

King of Denmark who unified the Danes and converted the kingdom to Christianity; known for the Jelling Stone.

Berserker

A Viking warrior who fought in a wild, trance-like fury, often described as unstoppable in battle.

Aud the Deep-minded

A powerful Viking woman known for her leadership and for founding settlements in Iceland.

Informal alliance between Charlemagne and Harun al‑Rashid

A diplomatic relationship between the Frankish emperor and the Abbasid caliph involving gifts and mutual recognition.

Viking ships

Fast, flexible longships used for raiding, trading, and exploration across seas and rivers.

Shallow draft

A ship design feature allowing Viking ships to travel in very shallow water, enabling surprise attacks.

Clinker construction

A method of overlapping wooden planks on a ship’s hull, making it strong and lightweight.

Viking raids

Hit‑and‑run attacks on monasteries, towns, and coastal settlements beginning in the late 700s.

Lindisfarne (793)

The first major Viking raid on an English monastery; marks the start of the Viking Age.

Paris (845)

A major Viking attack led by Ragnar Lodbrok, where Vikings sailed up the Seine and forced a ransom.

Normandy

A region in France granted to Viking leader Rollo in 911; became the “land of the Northmen.”

Viking sagas (Icelandic)

Medieval prose stories from Iceland describing Viking voyages, feuds, and legends.

Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241)

Icelandic historian and author of the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, key sources for Norse myth and history.

King Alfred (848–899)

King of Wessex who defended England from Vikings and promoted learning and law.

Kingdom of Wessex

The leading Anglo‑Saxon kingdom that resisted Viking invasions and helped unify England.

Danelaw

Areas of England under Viking control and Scandinavian law in the 9th–10th centuries.

King Cnut (990–1035)

Danish king who ruled England, Denmark, and Norway in a North Sea empire.

Ottonian Empire (919–1024)

German-led empire under the Ottonian dynasty, known for strong kingship and church reform.

Iron Crown of Lombardy

A medieval royal crown used in the coronation of kings of Italy.

Gospel Book of Otto III

A richly decorated manuscript showing Ottonian art and imperial ideology.

King Alfred (848–899)

King of Wessex who defended England from Viking invasions, promoted learning, and laid foundations for a unified English kingdom.

Kingdom of Wessex

The strongest Anglo‑Saxon kingdom in southern England; led resistance against Vikings and eventually unified England.

Danelaw

Regions of England under Viking control and Scandinavian law in the 9th–10th centuries.

King Cnut (990–1035)

Danish ruler who created a North Sea empire including England, Denmark, and Norway.

Normans/Normandy

Descendants of Viking settlers in northern France; Normandy became a powerful duchy after 911 under Rollo.

Norman rulers of Sicily: Roger I and Roger II (late 11th and 12th centuries)

Norman conquerors who took Sicily from Muslim rule and built a multicultural kingdom blending Latin, Greek, and Arabic traditions.

Palatine Chapel (Palermo, Sicily)

A richly decorated royal chapel built by Roger II, famous for its blend of Byzantine mosaics, Islamic design, and Latin architecture.

Muqarna

A form of Islamic architectural ornamentation creating honeycomb‑like, geometric vaulting; used in the Palatine Chapel.

William the Conqueror

Duke of Normandy who conquered England in 1066 and became its king.

Tower of London

A fortress built by William the Conqueror to secure Norman control over London.

Domesday Book

A massive survey of land, people, and resources in England ordered by William in 1086 to assess taxes and control the kingdom.

Plantagenet Family: Henry II (1154–1189), Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), and their children Richard the Lionhearted and John

A powerful royal dynasty; Henry II expanded royal justice, Eleanor shaped court culture, Richard led the Third Crusade, and John later signed the Magna Carta.

Troubadours/Courtly Love/Chivalry

Medieval poetic and cultural traditions celebrating refined love, knightly behavior, and aristocratic ideals, especially in southern France and Eleanor’s courts.

East–West Schism (1054)

the formal split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Battle of Manzikert (1071)

Seljuk victory that broke Byzantine control of Anatolia.

Seljuks of Rūm

a Turkic‑Persian dynasty ruling Anatolia after Manzikert.

Pope Urban II and “Deus Vult”

Urban launched the First Crusade in 1095 with the cry “God wills it.”

Significance of Jerusalem

sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims; symbolic center of crusading.

Latin military orders

monastic‑military groups like the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights.

Outremer

the Crusader states of Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem.

Rhineland Massacres of 1096

anti‑Jewish pogroms carried out by crusading mobs.

Salaḥ ad‑Dīn

unifier of Egypt and Syria who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.

Fatimid / Ayyubid Sultanate

Egyptian dynasties before and after Saladin’s rise.

Battle of Hattin (1187)

Saladin’s decisive victory that led to the fall of Jerusalem.

Richard the Lionheart

leader of the Third Crusade who negotiated access to Jerusalem.

Crusader Sack of Constantinople (1204)

Fourth Crusade attack that devastated Byzantium.

Baburnama

Babur’s memoir describing Central Asia and early Mughal India.

Al‑Maraghi

influential Persian music theorist shaping Middle Eastern musical systems.

Oud

fretless Middle Eastern lute.

Ney

end‑blown reed flute used in Persian, Turkish, and Arabic music.

Tanbour

long‑necked lute found across Iran and Central Asia.

Cantigas de Santa Maria

13th‑century Iberian songs honoring the Virgin Mary.

Razm and Bazm music

Persian “battle music” and “feast music.”

Rum

Islamic term for Byzantium and its Anatolian lands.

Khotay (Khotan)

Silk Road kingdom known for Buddhist and later Islamic culture.

Timur

founder of the Timurid Empire and patron of Persianate arts.

Persian Miniature

detailed, colorful manuscript painting tradition.

The Shahnama

Ferdowsi’s epic of Iranian kings.

The Zafarnama

epic recounting Timur’s conquests.

High Middle Ages

period of growth and cultural flourishing from 1000–1300.

Epic Poetry

long narrative verse celebrating heroic ideals.

Beowulf / Arthurian Legends

English heroic and chivalric traditions.

The Song of Roland

French epic expressing crusading and feudal values.

Nibelungenlied

Germanic heroic epic blending legend and courtly culture.

Digenes Akritas

Byzantine frontier epic about a warrior defending the eastern borders.

Gothic architecture

style emphasizing height and light through structural innovation.

Carolingian and Twelfth‑Century Renaissances

medieval revivals of learning and classical culture.

Romanesque Cathedral

thick walls, rounded arches, and heavy stone vaults.

Pointed Arches and Ribbed Vaults

Gothic techniques allowing taller, lighter structures.

Flying Buttresses

external supports enabling large stained‑glass windows.